YOUNG FOLKS' 
HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



YOUNG FOLKS' 



HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



^^( USED IN 7A GRADE 

INDIANAPOLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



COMPILED BY 

HLIZABETH J. COTTON 



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INDIANAPOLIS 

THE BOWEN MERRll I. CO 
1808 






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Copyright 1S9S 

by 

Elizabeth J. Cotton 



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XIo Xleacbers 

This work is intended to furnish materials 
for the foundation of the study of the Middle 
Ages, and references for more extended read- 
ing ^j*j«e^.'*v«'v-'«^J«.^J*^^J*>^-'*>^<^<^ 



Mediaeval History. 



MediaBval History or the History of the Middle Ap^es 
is commonly regarded as comprising the events of the 
1,000 years from the Fall of Rome (476 A. D.) to the 
discovery of America in 1492. (See Fall of Rome in 
"Young Folks' History of Greece and Rome.") 

RISE OF THE SARACENS OR ARABS. 

Physical Arabia. — We now pass from the forests and 
rivers of Europe to the sands and deserts in the south of 
Asia ; from a country of clouds, of rains, and of moist 
vegetation, to one of a burning sun, to the consuming 
and suffocating simoon, and to dry and aromatic plants. 
The men dwelling in these two countries are as different 
as their climates. A people sober in body and mind, of 
a quick and ardent temperament, seeing nothing but their 
desired goal and going directly toward it, and accus- 
tumed to dash through the desert with the swiftness of 
an arrow, because of the impossibility of stopping there 
with impunity and because there was nothing to attract 
them between the place of departure and that of arrival ; 
a people made either for prompt action or absolute re- 
pose — such is the Arab people, and these traits of char- 
acter are seen in their history. 

(1) 



" The Roman Empire was bounded by the Germans 
on the north and the Arabs on the south. The former 
had directed their attacks for the most part toward the 
Empire of the West and had overthrown it by an invasion 
prepared and indeed begun long before : the latter 
emerging suddenly from their deserts had made the Em- 
pire of the East their special point of attack, and with- 
out overthrowing it entirely, had, as it were, with a 
single blow of their cimeter, cut off a large portion. It 
was by astonishing good fortune that the Empire at Con- 
stantinople survived these two attacks coming from op- 
posite directions, like an island in the midst of an inun- 
dation. 

"Arabia, which then appeared for the first time on the 
stage of history, is a vast peninsula of which some por- 
tions are still but little known. It is bordered on the 
north toward Asia by great deserts, and on the north- 
west is connected with Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, 
where the small Peninsula of Sinai projects between the 
Gulfs of Suez and Akaba. The Peninsula of Arabia 
forms an imperfect square, with the longest side fac- 
ing Egypt and Abyssinia across the Red Sea and the 
Strait of El Mandeb — the shortest side facing Persia, 
from Avhich it is separated onl}- by the Persian Gulf. 
The width is very great, especially at the southern end. 
A chain of mountains, the continuation of the Lebanon 
range, extends along the Red Sea to Bab-el-Mandeb, the 
Gate of Tears. Another range borders the Persian Gulf 
as far as the Strait of Ormuz. These two mountain sys- 
tems are connected by a line of hills which run from one 
strait to the other. The inner slopes of these mountains 



surround a low and arid plateau which forms the cen- 
ter of Arabia, and their outward slopes face the sea and 
form a girdle of lands, part of which are rich and fertile, 
and here the heat of the climate is mitigated by the sea 
breezes, the rains, the water-courses, and the numberless 
irregularities of the land. 

" While the impossibility of permanently settling or 
of founding anything durable in the interior has alwaj^s 
kept up the nomad life, the advantages offered by the 
coast lands have given birth to fixed institutions and to 
a civilization which at times has been brilliant enough. 

Arabia Divided by the Romans. — "The only knowl- 
edge the ancients had of Arabia came through a few 
scattered Roman expeditions. They divided it into three 
parts — the Peninsula of Sinai, Arabia Deserta (the des- 
erts which extend from the Red Sea to the Euphrates), 
and Southern Arabia. 

Modern Political Divisions. — ' ' The Arabian geogra- 
phers, on the other hand, do not include either the 
peninsula of Sinai or the deserts of Sinai or of the 
Euphrates in their countr}', but consider them as lying 
outside of Arabia. They divided the rest of the penin- 
sula into eight countries : 1, Hedjaz, which borders the 
Red Sea, southeast of the peninsula of Sinai ; 2, Yemen, 
which lies south of Hedjaz ; 3, Hadramaut, on the In- 
dian Sea, at the east of Yemen ; 4, Mahrah, at the east 
of Hadramaut ; 5, Oman, between Mahrah and the Per- 
sian Gulf and the Indian Ocean ; 6, Bahrein, on the 
Persian Gulf ; 7 and 8, Nedjed and Ahkaf, in the in- 
terior. 

Most Noted Provinces. — "The most fertile of these 



provinces is Yemen, which is also well situated for com- 
merce, at the southwestern corner of Arabia, between the 
Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. This is the country of 
Aden, of Sana, of the ancient and wonderful Saba, and 
of Mocha, famous for its coffee. The best known, though 
not the most fertile, of these provinces is Hedjaz, the 
country of Mecca and Medina, two cities which ruled 
all the rest of Arabia through their religious influence, 
though their situation obliged them to have two ports on 
the Red Sea, in order to derive means of subsistence 
from abroad. 

Origin of People. — " The Arabs attribute a double or- 
igin to their population — a primitive race descended 
from Shem, according to some, from Ham, according to 
others, and to descendants from Abraham, who, accord- 
ing to their traditions, in obedience to the commands of 
God, came to Mecca to found the temple of Kaaba. They 
say that Abraham lived man}'- years in Hedjaz, and was 
aided in his divine mission by Ishmael, who was the 
founder of the Ishmaelites." — Duruy's Middle Ages. 

"And God said to Abraham, Also of the son of the 
bondwoman will I make a nation." 

"And the lad grew and dwelt in the wilderness and 
became an archer. And his mother took him a wife out 
of the land of Egypt." 



HAGAR IX THE WILDERNESS. 

The morning broke. Light stole upon the clouds 
With a strange beaut}'. Earth received again 
Its garment of a thousand dyes ; and leaves 
And delicate blossoms, and the painted flowers, 
And everything that beudeth to the dew 



And stirreth with the daylight, lifted up 
Its beauty to the breath of that sweet morn. 

All things are dark to sorrow; and the light 
And loveliness and fragrant air were sad 
To the dejected Ilagar. The moist earth 
Was pouring odors from its spicy pores, 
And the young birds were singing, as if life 
Were a new thing to them, but, O ! it came 
Upon her heart like discord, and she felt 
How cruelly it tries a broken heart 
To see a mirth in anything it loves. 
She stood at Abraham's tent. Her lips were i^ressed 
Till the blood started, and the wandering veins 
Of her transparent forehead were swelled out, 
As if her pride would burst them. Her dark eye 
Was clear and tearless, and the light of heaven 
Which made its language legible, shot back 
From her long lashes, as it had been flame. 
Her noble boy stood by her, with his hand 
Clasped in her own, and his round, delicate feet. 
Scarce trained to balance on the tented floor. 
Sandalled for journeying. He had looked up 
Into his mother's face, until he caught 
The spirit there, and his young heart was swelling 
Beneath his dimpled bosom, and his form 
Straightened up proudly in his tiny wrath. 
As if his light proportions would have swelled, 
Had they but matched his spirit to the man. 

Why bends the patriarch as he cometh now 
Upon his staff so wearily ? His head 
Is low upon his breast, and his high brow 
So written with the converse of his God, 
Beareth the swollen vein of agony. 
His lip is quivering, and his wonted step 
Of vigor is not there ; and though the morn 
Is passing fair and beautiful, he breathes 
Its freshness as it were a pestilence. 
O, man may bear with sufferings: his heart 
Is a strong thing, and godlike in the grasp 
Of pain, that wrings mortality ; but tear 



6 



One chord affection clings to, part one tie 
That binds him to a woman's delicate love, 
And his great spirit yieldeth like a reod. 

He gave to her the water and the bread, 
But si)oke no word, and trusted not himself 
To look upon her face, but laid his hand 
In silent blessing on the fair-haired boy, 
And left her to her lot of loneliness. 

Should Ilagar weep ? May sliglited W(jman turn, 
And, as a vine the oak has shaken off, 
Bend lightly to her leaning trust again ? 
O, no! by all her loveliness, by all 
That makes life poetry and beauty, no! 
Make her a slave ; steal from her rosy cheek 
By needless jealousies; let the last star 
Leave lier a watcher by your couch of pain ; 
Wrong her by petulance, suspicion, all 
That makes her cup a bitterness— yet give 
One evidence of love, and earth has not 
An emblem of devotedness like hers. 
But, ()! estrange her once— it buuls not 
By wrong or silence, anything that tells 
A change has come upon your tenderness — 
And there is not a high thing out of heaven 
Her i^ride o'ermastereth not. 

She went her way with a strong step and slow; 
Her pressed lip arched, and her clear eye undiiumed, 
As it had been a diamun<l, and her form 
Borne proudly up as if her heart breathed through. 
Her child kei>t on in silence, though she jjvcssed 
His hand till it was pained ; for he had caught, 
As I have said, her spirit, and the seed 
Of a stern nation had been breathed upon. 

The morning passed, and Asia's sun rode up 
In the clear heaven, and every beam was heat. 
The cattle of the hills were in the shade, 
And the bright plumage of the Orient lay 
On beating bosoms in her spicy trees. 
It was an hour of rest ; but Ilagar found 
No shelter in the wilderness, and on 



She kept her weary way, until the boy 

Hung down his head, and opened his parched lips 

For water; but she could not give it him. 

She laid him down beneath the sultry sky, 

For it was better than the close hot breath 

Of the thick pines, and tried to comfort him ; 

But he was sore athirst, and his blue eyes 

Were dim and bloodshot, and he could not know 

Why God denied him water in the wild. 

She sat a little longer, and he grew 

Ghastly and faint, as if he would have died. 

It was too much for her. She lifted him 

And bore him furtlier on, and laid his head 

Beneath the shadow of a desert shrub ; 

And, shrouding up her face, she went away. 

And sat to watch where he could see her not. 

Till he should die; and — watching him, she mourned: 

" God stay thee in thine agony, my boy ! 
I can not see thee die; I can not brook 
Upon thy brow to look. 
And see death settle on my cradle-joy. 
How have I drunk the light of thy blue eye! 
And could I see thee die ? 

'* I did not dream of this when thou were straying 
Like an unbound gazelle amid the flowers; 
Or wearing rosy hours. 
By the rich gush of water sources playing. 
Then sinking weary to thy smiling sleep. 
So beautiful and deep. 

" O, no! and when I watched by thee the while, 
And saw thy bright lip curling in thy dream, 
And thought of the dark stream 
In my own land of Egypt, the far Nile, 
How prayed I that my father's land might be 
An heritage for thee ! 

" And now the grave for its cold breust hath won thee. 
And thy white, delicate limbs the earth will press, 
And, 0! my last caress 



8 



Must feel thee cold, for a chill hand is on thee. 
How can I leave juy boy, so pillowed there 
Upon his clustering hair!" 

She stood beside the well lier God had given 
To gush in that deep wilderness, and ])athed 
The forehead of her child until he laughed 
In his reviving happiness, and lisped 
His infant thought of gladness at the sight 
Of the cool plashing of his mother's hand. — N. P. Willis. 



GOD S GIFTS TO THE ARAB. 

[From, Ben-Hur. Read Sheik Ilderim in the Orchard of Palms at 
Antioch.] 

"God gave the first Arab a measureless waste of sand, 
with some treeless mountains, and here and there a well 
of bitter waters, and said to him : ' Behold thy coun- 
try ! ' And when the poor man complained, the Mighty 
One pitied him, and said again, * Be of cheer, for I will 
twice bless thee above other men.' The Arab heard, and 
gave thanks, and with faith set out to find the blessings. 
He traveled all the boundaries first, and failed ; then he 
made a path into the desert, and went on and on — and 
in the heart of the waste there was an island of green, 
very beautiful to see ; and in the heart of the island, lo ! 
a herd of camels, and another of horses ! He took them 
joyfully and kept them with care for what they were — 
best gifts of God. And from that green isle went forth 
all the horses of the earth ; even to the pastures of 
Nesaea they went ; and northward to the dreadful vales 
perpetually threshed by blasts from the Sea of Chill 
Winds. Doubt not the story ; or if thou dost, may never 
amulet have charm for an Arab again." — Leiv Wallace. 



RELIGION OF THE ARABS. 

*' The Arab population of the north and south formed 
great powers, and came often into contact, both in peace 
and war, with foreign powers far and near. They be- 
came involved in the affairs of the Roman Empire and 
of Persia. 

"Christianity was preached to them by an envoy, sent 
by Constantine, but at the beginning of the sixth cen- 
tury they persecuted the new religion, and the Greek 
emperor induced the king of Abyssinia, who was a 
Christian, to avenge the w^rongs of the cross. The 
Abyssinians then invaded Yemen (525 A. D.) and, un- 
der a viceroy, established their dominion and the Chris- 
tian religion in this country; and built a church to 
oppose the Arab one at Mecca. In 575 A. D. the Abys- 
sinians were driven from the country, but only with the 
assistance of a Persian army, sent by a Persian king 
who merely substituted his own dominion for that of the 
Africans. 

"The central region, which had never wielded so 
great a power, had at least preserved that liberty without 
which no progress could be made in Arabia. The for- 
eign armies which appeared in the north and south liad 
not penetrated to Hedjaz. More traces of the patriarclial 
government were found there ; the people were divided 
into tribes composed of a certain number of families, a 
sheik (lord) at the head of each family ; a supreme sheik 
(emir) at the head of each tribe, which he governed with 
the advice of the sheiks of the families. In ancient 
times when a chief took possession of a pasturage he set 



10 

his pack of hounds barking, and so far as the hound 
could be heard, so far extended his right of possession. 
So great simplicity was there in the primitive customs 
of the people. Nevertheless the population of Hedjaz 
held a variety and mixture of religious ideas of every 
sort which prepared them for a brilliant destiny. Being 
a central state Iledjaz was the meeting-ground of all the 
others, the point where all intercourse, trade, and ideas 
converged. Three of the great religions of Asia and 
Europe, without mentioning idolatry with all its gods, 
met there: Christianity, which had been carried to the 
north by the Greeks and to the south by the Abyssinians ; 
Sabianism, brought by the Persians ; and, finally, Juda- 
ism, which had been introduced everywhere. Three 
hundred and sixty idols were gathered together in the 
Kaaba (temple of Mecca), and when Mohammed turned 
them out there was found to be among the number a 
Byzantine virgin, painted on a column, holding Christ 
in her arms. Idolatry was the dominant religion, not 
the ingenious idolatry of the Greeks who clothed the 
gods in human form, but the Egyptian idolatry, the 
worship of animals, of plants, of the gazelle, of the 
horse, of the camel, of palm-trees, and of rocks. All in- 
deed recognized a supreme god, Allali. The form of 
this religion had not changed for a long time. As with 
the Jews, the care of the temple had been given to one 
chosen family for many years. In 440 A. D. an Ish- 
maelite family had secured this charge, had rebuilt the 
temple, and, in a way, founded Mecca and established 
the principal religious and civil institutions of the 
Arabs. 



11 

Poets. — ''The Arabs were poets as well as warriors 
and merchants ; at least they had their bards, like the 
men of the north, and their feasts, and their poetical con- 
tests, such as were held at the Olympic games of the 
Greeks. Whoever was most successful in moving the 
souls of the listeners and awakening within them a re- 
sponse, saw his work written in letters of gold on costly 
canvas and hung in the Kaaba. In this way seven 
poems have come down to us." — Duruy. 

Life of Mohammed. — Mohammed was born at Mecca, 
about the year 570 A. D. His grandfather had de- 
fended Mecca against the Abyssinians, and his father was 
famous for his distribution of soup during a famine. 
Having lost his father at two months old and his mother 
at six years of age, he was put under the guardianship 
of his uncle. Being without fortune he became a camel 
driver and traveled a great deal, especially in Syria, 
where he is said to have become intimate with a monk 
and a Jewish rabbi, who both introduced him to their 
sacred books, the Old and New Testaments. He fought 
with bravery in a tribal war, and by his amiable quali- 
ties gained the affection of all, and by his probity the 
name of the trustworthy man. A rich and noble widow 
took him into her service as director of her commercial 
affairs, and he served her so well that she married him 
out of gratitude, although she was forty and he but 
twenty-five years of age. From that time he was mas- 
ter of a great fortune, and was able to give himself up to 
his meditations. He often retired to the desert, spend- 
ing whole nights in revery. 

At the age of forty — a mystic number in the east — he 



12 

declared that the angel Gabriel had appeared to him in 
a vision, commissioning him to preach a new faith. He 
disclosed his projects to his wife, to his cousin Ali, and 
to his friend Abu Bekr, and declared to them the neces- 
sity of bringing the religion of Abraham back to its 
original purity. 

After a time he publicly renounced idol-worship, and 
proclaimed himself a prophet. Persecution waxed hot, 
and he was forced to flee for his life. His adherents 
were alarmed and took refuge in Abyssinia, and he him- 
self retired to the mountains near Mecca. 

The chapters of the Koran, which he dictated to his 
secretary, were written on palm-leaves and on the bones 
of sheep. It is composed of one hundred and fourteen 
chapters, which are divided into verses. These verses, 
containing all the precepts of the Islam moralit}^ are 
inscribed by the Mohammedans upon the walls of their 
mosques, on their banners, and on their monuments. 
The fundamental principle of their dogma is, " God alone 
is God, and Mohammed is his prophet. It teaches: ' God 
has been revealed to man by a series of prophets, tlie last 
and most perfect of whom is Mohammed ; his predeces- 
sors are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Christ.'" 
Some of the religious observances are the great annual 
pilgrimage to Mecca, the five daily prayers, ablutions, 
either with water, or, if water failed, with the fine sand of 
the desert, the avoidance of w^ine and of swine flesh. 

When pursued by his enemies, who wished to kill him, 
Mohammed took refuge in a cave near Mecca; and, in 
the close of each evening, he received from the son and 
daughter of Abu Bekr a secret supply of intelligence afid 



13 

food. His enemies diligently explored every haunt in 
the neighborhood of the city ; they arrived at the en- 
trance of the cave, but seeing a spider's web and a 
pigeon's nest, they passed on in pursuit. ''We are only 
two," said the trembling Abu Bekr. "There is a third," 
replied the prophet; it is God himself." No sooner was 
the pursuit abated than the two fugitives issued from 
the rock and mounted their camels. On the road to Me- 
dina, they were overtaken by their pursuers; they re- 
deemed themselves by prayers and promises. In this 
eventful moment, the lance of an Arab might have 
changed the history of the world. 

The fugitives secured an asylum in Medina, where the 
new faith spread rapidly and Mohammed found himself 
at the head of an army. He aroused his followers to go 
forth to conquer by such precepts as the following : 

" Woe to the Mussulman who stays by his fireside in- 
stead of going to war ; he can not escape death, for the 
term of his life is fixed. Does he fear the burning heat 
of the combat? The infernal regions are hotter than the 
heats of summer. Does he think to turn and flee? Para- 
dise is before him, behind him the flames of the infernal 
regions. Paradise will be found in the shadow of the 
crossing of swords." The only choice left the conquered 
was the Koran, tribute, or death. 

The martial apostle fought in person at nine battles or 
sieges and fifty enterprises of war were achieved in ten 
years by himself and his lieutenants. The Arab continued 
to unite the professions of a merchant and a robber ; and 
his petty excursions for the defense or attack of a cara- 
van insensibly prepared his troops for the conquest of 



14 

Arabia. From all sides the roving Arabs were allured 
to the standard of religion and plunder. In three years' 
time after the taking of Mecca (629) all Arabia lay pros- 
trate at the feet of the prophet. His rule was now firmly 
established ; and an impulse given to the Arabian nation 
which induced them to invade and enabled them to con- 
quer a large portion of the globe. Mohammed himself 
did not live to see such mighty conquests achieved, for 
he died at Medina, A. D. 632. — Adapted from Duruy 
and Gibbon. 

CONQUEST OF THE ARABS. 

Conquest of Syria. — The Caliphs, or successors of Mo- 
hammed, rapidly followed up the triumphs of the new 
faith. Some of the warriors went to tlie heart of Arabia 
to put down the false prophets and the tribes who re- 
fused to recognize Islamism, others marched against 
Syria, and others toward the Euphrates and Persia. In 
six years, Syria was conquered from the Byzantine Greeks. 

When besieging Damascus, 70,000 men, sent by the 
Greek emperor, were utterly defeated, and the fugitives 
from the city were pursued with all the speed of Arab 
horses, so that they were entirely destroyed. ''A second 
victory in Palestine completed this conquest. A Greek 
army of considerable size had come out against the Mo- 
hammedans ; three times they fell back, but each time 
their wives, who were on horseback, bow in hand, at the 
rear of the army, sent them back to the -combat. The 
Arabian historians speak of 150,000 enemies slain and 
40,000 prisoners." 



15 

"Jerusalem opened its gates to the Caliph Omar, who 
came in person to take possession. He was plainly- 
mounted on a rough-haired camel, and carried in front 
of him, on his saddle, a bag of wheat, a bag of dates, 
and a leathern bottle of water, and offered to share his 
repast with all whom he met. He stayed days at Jeru- 
salem in order to regulate the affairs of the country^ 
and to build a mosque, though he allowed the Christians 
the free exercise of their religion. After Jerusalem, 
Aleppo, and finally Antioch, the mighty capital of Syria, 
surrendered, and the Greek emperor abandoned the 
country forever (638 A. D.)" 

The army which had been sent in the direction of the 
Euphrates had experienced no less marvelous success. 
Persia, whose power was already declining, tried in vain 
with 150,000 soldiers to resist 30,000 Arabs. Ispahan 
was conquered, Persepolis sacked, and the king of Persia 
just escaped being taken prisoner in the midst of his 
falling palace. He went in search of aid as far as 
China, but in vain, and was assassinated on the shores 
of the Oxus (652 A. D.). 

Conquest of Eo:ypt. — "Meanwhile Egypt was subju- 
gated. The Arab leader took advantage of the hatred 
which the Copts felt toward the Greeks, whom they con- 
sidered as foreigners and heretics. His progress was 
not checked till he reached Alexandria, which held out 
against him fourteen months. It is generally believed 
that the Arab leader gave orders to burn the precious 
library of this rich and learned city. Omar is reported 
to have said, ' If the manuscripts agree with the Koran . 
they are useless ; if they disagree, they should be de- 



16 

stroyed.' Nevertheless the Arabs organized the govern- 
ment with wisdom, substituting a more just system of 
taxation and reserving one-third of these taxes for the 
preservation of the canals and ditches. 

'' Intestine quarrels brought the conquest of the Arabs 
to a halt for the time being. Two great parties arose, 
those belonging to one gave themselves up to luxury 
and disobeyed the precepts of their religion ; others by 
a natural reaction formed the fanatical sects, the puri- 
tans of Islamism. The next d3'nasty was established by 
rivers of blood. A second and last period of conquests 
then began." 

Eastern Extent. — In the east the Mussulman power 
extended itself to the limits of Alexander's empire. 
"The Arabs found at this extreme end of their empire, 
at Bokhara and Samarcand (707 A. D.), the fruits from 
the seeds of civilization left there by the Greek con- 
querors, and they did not allow this growing prosperity 
to perish. 

Attack on Constantinople. — "The Arabs advanced also 
in the direction of Asia Minor and of Constantinople. 
So far they had only fought on land, but the Syrian 
dynasty gave tliem a maritime power, the elements of 
which they found in tlie conquered provinces of Phoe- 
nicia and Cilicia." 

About fifty years after Mohammed's flight from Mecca, 
his disciples appeared in arms under the walls of Con- 
stantinople. The Greeks had little to hope and their 
enemies no reason to fear, from the courage and vigil- 
ance of the reigning emperor, who disgraced the name 
of Con.stantine. Williout opposition the Saracens passed 



I 



17 

tlirougli the unguarded channel of the Hellespont and 
anchored seven miles from- the city. The wealth of 
nations deposited in this well-chosen seat of royalty and 
commerce seemed about to be distributed among the 
riders of the desert. 

The spirit of the Romans, however, was rekindled by 
the last danger of their religion and empire. The 
strength and resources of the Greeks greatly exceeded 
the estimate of the Arabs. The solid and lofty walls 
were defended by great numbers of disciplined soldiers 
who poured torrents of Greek fire from the battlements 
upon the besiegers. This artificial fire was composed 
of sulphur, naphtha, and pitch and was hurled from the 
rampart upon the ships by means of red-hot hollow 
balls of iron, or blown through copper tubes from the 
prow of a galley. By the greatest precautions the secret 
of this compjosition was confined about four hundred 
years to the Romans of the East. 

After a siege of seven years (668-675) and another of 
thirteen months, the Arab invasion of Europe in this 
direction was given up. Their retreat decided that the 
Eastern Empire should live some centuries longer. — 
Adapted from Duruy and Gibbon. 

The Conquest of Northern Africa. — " From Egypt the 
Saracens bore the triumphant banner of the prophet over 
northern Africa and by 700 A. D. they had reached the 
Atlantic. Here, opposite the Canary Islands, their vic- 
torious emir, riding out among the waves, lamented that 
the ocean prevented him from planting the crescent in 
the unknown kingdoms of the West." — Quackenbos, 
Med. His. -2 



18 

The deserts of Africa had no terror for the Arabs at- 
tended by their faitliful camels, but they feared the 
Roman fleet. Notwithstanding the weakness of the 
Greeco-Roman Empire, Roman soldiers from Constanti- 
nople, with Gothic warriors from Italy and Spain, 
hastened across the Mediterranean Sea to aid in the pro- 
tection of Carthage and other Roman colonies on the 
sea-coast. All Europe had begun to feel alarm at the 
threatening advance of the Saracens, but the combined 
Christian forces were only able to resist their progress 
for half a century from their first invasion, 643. By 698 
A. D. the dominion of the Arabs was established over 
the whole length of the African sea-coast by the conquest 
of Carthage, which was consigned to the flames and has 
never been rebuilt. 

''The ruins of Carthage have perished ; and the place 
might be unknown if some broken arches of an aque- 
duct did not guide the footsteps of the inquisitive trav- 
eler." 

After the Greeks were expelled, the countr}^ was in 
constant turmoil owing to the disorderly resistance of 
the Berbers afterwards known as the Moors. This tribe 
of people, called Berbers or Barbarians by tlie Romans, 
inhabited the interior provinces of Northern Africa. 
They were idolaters at first, but after their last insurrec- 
tion was quelled in 709, they were thoroughly converted 
to the faith of the Koran. With the religion they were 
proud to adopt the language, name, and origin of the 
Arabs. After this union with the Arabs the Berbers 
were known as the "Moors." 

For a thousand vears tlie historv of Northern Africa 



19 

had been intertwined with that of Europe and seemed 
destined to share in the progress of that continent. By 
this conquest tliese countries became once more an ex- 
tension of Asia and have sunk under the yoke of the 
Arabian prophet. The arts which had been taught by 
Carthage and Rome were forgotten and five hundred 
Christian churches were overturned. In no other land 
has Christianity, once established, been so completely 
uprooted. — Adapted from Gibbon and Myers. 

Extent. — The Mohammedan empire now stretched 
from the Indus to the Atlantic and only the narrow 
straits of Bosporus and Hercules separated the Moslem 
dominions from the Christian countries of Europe. The 
Greek fire had successfully repulsed their attacks at the 
eastern extremity of the continent and their attention 
was now directed to the shores of Spain. As early as 
the first invasion of Africa (G43 A. D.) by the Arabs, their 
piratical squadrons had ravaged the coast of Andalusia. 
The Goths of Spain had moreover aroused tlie enmity of 
the Arabs by sending succor to the inhabitants of Car- 
thage. 

Before relating the story of the conquest of Siyain by 
the Arabs, we will pause to learn some facts about the 
physical features of this southwestern peninsula of Eu- 
rope which is so closely allied to Africa, both in phys- 
ical characteristics and in its subsequent history. 

PHYSICAL SPAIN. 

[Read Chapter I, Irving's Alhamhra.] 

"The surface of Spain is remarkable alike for its 
striking contrasts and its vast expanses of drear}^ uni- 



20 

formit}^ There are mouiitaius rising with Alpine gran- 
deur above the snow line, but often sheltering rich and 
magnificent valleys at their base. Naked walls of white 
limestone tower above woods of cork oak and olive. In 
others, as in the Basque country, in Galicia, and between 
the head of the Tagus and those of the Guadalquivir, there 
are extensive tracts of undulating forest-clad hill country. 
Almost contiguous to these are "tracts of level tablelands, 
some almost inhospitable, and some streaked with canals 
and richly cultivated, like those of Valencia. 

Interior. — "The greater part of the interior of Spain 
is composed of a table-land bounded by the Cantabrian 
mountains in the north, and Sierra Morena in the south, 
and divided into two by a series of mountain ranges 
stretching from east to west. The nortliBrn half of the 
table-land, made up of the provinces of Leon and Old 
Castile, has an average elevation estimated at about 
2,700 feet, while the soutliern half is slightly lower. On 
all sides the table-land as a whole is remarkably isolated. 
On the side of Portugal the table-land sinks to the sea in 
a succession of terraces. The communication between 
the two countries being very difficult, led originally to 
the separation between them. In modern times it has 
caused a lack of trade. Even in 1885 not a single rail- 
road entered Portugal north of the Tagus, though one 
was in course of construction. For the most part there 
are only bridle-paths across the sierras, and up to the 
present day not a single railroad crosses the sierras di- 
rectly. In the mountainous districts, where there are only 



21 

narrow paths, it is still not uncommon to meet long 
trains of mules. (See Alhambra, pages 12, 13, 14.) 

Rivers. — " The onl}^ two important lowland valleys of 
Spain are of the Ebro and the Guadalquivir. 

Climate. — " Four zones are distinguished. The first, 
that of the table-lands, is distinguished by the greatest 
extremes. Even iu summer the nights are decidedly 
cool, and it is not a rare thing to see hoar-frost. At 
Madrid (2150 feet) it regularly freezes hard enough for 
skating in December and January. The summers are 
not only extremely warm, but almost rainless, the sea 
winds being deprived of their moisture by the edge of 
the plateau. In July and August the plains of Castile 
are sunburnt wastes ; the roads are several inches deep 
with dust ; the leaves of the few trees are withered and 
discolored. The treeless, almost steppe-like valley of 
the Ebro acts like a concave mirror, reflecting the sun's 
rays, and the mountains around prevent the access of 
the winds. The second zone is the eastern or Mediterra- 
nean, where the extremes are less. The southern zone, 
embracing the whole of Andalusia, has a genuine sub- 
tropical climate with extremely warm and almost rain- 
less summers and mild winters, the temperature hardly 
ever sinking below the freezing point. It is said that at 
Malaga, snow falls only about once in twenty-five years. 
The winter is the season of brightest vegetation, after 
the long drought of summer, the surface gets covered 
once more in late autumn with a fresh green varied with 
bright colored flowers, and so it remains the whole win- 
ter through. The eastern part of this zone is liable to 
be visited by the scorching sirocco. The fourth zone. 



22 

that of the north and northwest, is mild and equable. 
The rains are abundant. Monthly roses bloom in the 
gardens at Christmas time. (See Irving's "Granada," 
pages 2 and 3. ) 

Vegetation and Ao:ricultnre. — The vegetation exhibits 
a variety in keeping with the climate. On the table- 
lands, where the trees are almost entirely absent, there 
are tracts of evergreen shrubs, others of thyme, and on 
some, large thistles abound. The maritime parts of 
Malaga and Granada present scenes of almost tropical 
richness and beauty. Evergreen oaks, chestnuts, and 
conifers abound in the northern maritime provinces and 
in the south. The pines and firs belong to the slopes of the 
Sierra Nevada, the cork oaks to the southern provinces, 
also the date-palm and dwarf-palm. Six steppe regions 
are counted. La Manche in Castle is one. Along the 
base of the Sierra Morcna, embracing hundreds of square 
miles, run regular forests of olives. Oranges, excluded 
from the plateau by the severity of the winter cold, are 
grown in great quantities on the plains of Andalusia 
and all around the Mediterranean coast ; and figs, al- 
monds, pomegranates and other southern fruits are 
also grown al)undantly in all the warmer parts, the first 
two even in Central Spain and the more sheltered parts 
of the northern maritime provinces. In these last, how- 
ever, the prevailing fruit-trees are those of central Eu- 
rope, especially the apple. The date-palm is very gen- 
eral in the southeastern half of the kingdom, but culti- 
vated for its fruit in Alicante. Cotton is only grown 
here and there in the south ; sugar-cane is increasing in 
importance. The mulberry is grown in almost all the 



provinces, principally along the Mediterranean and 
above all, in Valencia, the chief seat of the Spanish silk 
production and manufacture. Of the grains wheat and 
barley are cultivated in all parts, oats and rye in the 
higher parts, and corn and rice to some extent, but the 
latter only in Valencia. — Compiled from Britannica. 

People. — The Visigoths, who, under the leadership of 
Alaric, assisted in the downfall of the Roman empire, 
had found a permanent home in Spain and Southern 
France. (See "Fall of Rome," in Roman History.) 
" When they first became masters of Spain, they were a 
rude tribe of savages without learning or culture. ' ' After 
they had intermingled with the natives (descendants of 
Roman and Greek colonists) for a century or so they be- 
came a refined and polished people, speaking Latin, and 
trained in letters, law, and religion ; and they still re- 
mained warlike and manly. But in the course of time 
they gained possession of the rich valleys of Spain, ac- 
quired idle and luxurious habits, spent their lives in 
drinking, feasting, and dancing, and thus became as 
weak and helpless as the people of Italy. " Powerful 
chiefs, with men-at-arms under their command, seized 
the richest lands, and made the common people till them 
for their food and clothes. The man who drove the plow 
was cowed, houseless, hungry, unkempt, filth}^ and ig- 
norant. The man who owned the land lived in a splen- 
did castle, with soldiers guardingthe gate. He wore clothes 
of silk and rich stuffs, ate choice foods, drank fine wines, 
took his siesta in the shade of olive groves, where fra- 
grant flowers perfumed the air, listened to the sweet 



24 

music of lutes, or lazily watched lovely girls dancing on 
Persian carpets for his delight. 

"At the close of the Gothic period in Spain there is 
much fable mingled with the history. The Gothic king 
was named Roderick; of that there can be no doubt. He 
is said to have been brutal, reckless, headstrong, and in- 
capable ; of that there is no certainty at all." The coun- 
try was constantly threatened, as we have before related, 
by Moors and Arabs from Northern Africa. "To hold 
them in check, Roderick built forts in Africa, and filled 
them with fighting men under a captain named Julian." 
By the treachery of this commander the forts were sur- 
rendered to the Arabs and an invitation given to them to 
despatch a force into Spain to overthrow Roderick. 

Arabs Enter Spain. — Musa, the chief of the Arabs, 
delayed till he could consult the caliph ; then, receiving 
a favorable reply, despatched an army of seven thousand 
men under an officer named Tarik. He crossed the 
Strait of Hercules in 711 and gave it the name of Gibral- 
tar (Djebel-Tarik, Mountain of Tarik.) 

"These invaders are called J/oors because they em- 
barked for Spain from Mauritania, which we call Moroc- 
co. They were a mixed race — part Arab and part Ber- 
bers, but Musa and Tarik were Arabs, born in Asia. 
Their complexion was swarthy but not black, and they 
were fierce, warlike, and unruly in character. They 
were tireless on the march and fearless in battle ; living 
for a day on a handful of fruit, with a mouthful of 
water; devoted heart and soul to the Moslem faith, 
which they believed it to be their duty to spread through 
the world by fire and sword, they may perliaps remind 



25 

you of the Carthaginians who spread from the same 
stock and lived in Northern Africa. They were indeed 
terrible foes for the weakened Spanish Goths to encoun- 
ter. 

"When Roderick heard of their landing he mustered 
all the troops he could gather, and marched down to 
Xeres near Cadiz, with ninety thousand men. It is said 
that he went into battle in an ivory chariot drawn by 
two milk-white mules. Though his force far outnum- 
bered that of the Moors, even after the latter had been 
reinforced, he was defeated after a desperate battle 
which lasted eight days. 

"There is an old Spanish ballad which tells the story 
of the end of the battle, and describes the despair of 
Roderick : 

" He climbed into a hill-top, 

The highest he could see, 
Thence all about of that wide rout 

His last long look took he ; 
He saw his royal banners, 

Where they lay drenched and torn, 
He heard the cry of victory, 

The Arabs' shout of scorn. 
' Last night I was the King of Spain ; 

To-day no king am I. 
Last night fair castles held my train; 

To-night where shall I lie ? 
Last night a hundred pages 

Did serve me on the knee ; 
To-night not one I call my own, 

Not one pertains to me. 
Oh Death! why now so slow art thou. 

Why fearest thou to smite ? ' " 



2G 

The story is told that Roderick started from his car in 
the general disorder, and mounted the fleetest of his 
horses ; hut he escaped from a soldier's death to perish 
more ignobly in the waters of Guadalquivir. His 
bodj^ was found, but his crown and his royal robe fell 
into the hands of the Moors. 

" His army scattered ; neither officers nor men were 
true to Roderick. He had taught them to hate him by 
his cruelties and his folly. The Jews, especially, whom 
he oppressed, openly took sides with the INIoors, in order 
to be revenged on the Christian oppressors. 

" Musa, the chief general of the Moors in Africa, had 
ordered his lieutenant Tarik, when he left Africa, to give 
one battle, if he thought it safe, but not to follow up his 
victory if he won. Musa wanted the glory of conquest 
for himself. Tarik, looking out for his own glory, 
chose to disobey. He listened to the advice of Count 
Julian, whose only hope now was in the ruin of his 
country, and took advantage of the Spaniards before they 
had recovered from their astonishment at their first 
defeat. 

"Without an hour's delay, after the battle of Xeres, he 
marched north, and took city after city. The Spanish 
spirit had been broken. Malaga made no resistance, 
Granada was stormed ; against Cordova Tarik sent seven 
hundred cavalry, who found a breach in the walls, and 
broke into the place." 

Toledo, the Gothic capital, was next attacked. There 
they expected resistance. But the Jews, who had been 
so cruelly persecuted there, took up arms and opened the 
gates , the Christian nobles and churchmen fled to the 



27 

mountains and Tarik found himself in possession of the 
most splendid and the strongest city of Spain, without 
striking a blow. "It was there that Musa who had 
stopped on his way to capture Seville, rejoined his dis- 
obedient lieutenant and disgraced him." 

(See '' A Child's History of Spain," by John Bonner.) 

From that time all Spain, save some mountainous 
regions of the northwest, quickly submitted to the 
invaders. "Here and there a band of Christians, under 
a daring leader, would rise against the Moslems, but 
after a few skirmishes the uprising would be quelled." 
Yet a spark of the vital flame was still alive ; some in- 
vincible fugitives preferred a life of poverty and freedom 
in the valleys- of the Asturias, north of the Cantabrian 
Mountains. There the Christians established a kingdom 
which in 750 A. D. extended from Galicia to the borders 
of Navarre and included the mountainous region of Old 
Castile and Leon. 

"This part of Spain is much broken by mountain 
ranges, and is cold and windy. It is not barren, for it 
grows wheat, barley, and flax in abundance, and on the 
mountain slopes the cork-tree flourishes. But the cli- 
mate is harsher than in the valleys of the South, where 
the vine, and the orange, and the lemon, and the fig luxu- 
riate in an almost perpetual summer." — John Bonner. 

Moorish Kingdom in Spain. — The news of the wealth 
of the new provinces in Spain attracted the Moslems 
from far and near. Multitudes of colonists from Arabia, 
Syria, and Northern Africa crowded into the peninsula 
and fought with each other for the rich valleys. In a 
short time the provinces of Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and 



28 

Granada became Arabic in dress, manners, language, and 
religion. A Moorish kingdom was thus established in 
Spain, which existed till the year of the discovery of 
America (1492). 

Moorish Invtasion of France (732 A. D.). — Four or 
five years after the conquest of Spain and one hundred 
years after the death of Mohammed, the Arabs of Spain 
— -.also called Saracens and Moors — crossed the Pyrenees 
and established themselves in Southern France. 

Proceeding northward across the Garonne River, they 
advanced to the valley of the Loire. Their leader boasted 
that he would carry the conquests to the Baltic Sea, and 
that he would not rest until there was not a Christian in 
Western or Southern Europe. His ambition was to preach 
in the Vatican, capture Constantinople, and having 
girdled the Mediterranean with his conquests, to return 
to Damascus and lay down his victorious sword at the 
feet of the caliph. 

The advance of the Moslem host was viewed with 
alarm by all Christendom. The Visigoths of Southern 
France were in too feeble a condition to resist the ad- 
vance of the Arabs, who swept over the country on their 
swift chargers. A cry for help reached the Franks, a 
German, tribe living north of the Loire River. During 
the days of the Roman Empire their home had been 
along the lower Rhine valley from about where Cologne 
now stands to the mouth of the river. The Franks did 
not, like their kinsmen the Goths, Vandals, and Lom- 
bards, leave their own country and go roaming over the 
world in search of new lands. They held what they 
had and added to them, and this wise conduct enabled 



29 

them in course of time to become the rulers of France. 
The Franks had been Christians since the time of their 
first king, Clovis. (See story of the adoption of Chris- 
tianity by Clovis; "Zigzag Journey of Northern Lands," 
and histories.) They had become partially civilized by 
contact with the Gaulo-Romans, but still liked fighting 
better than any other employment. — Adapted. 

Battle of Tours. — When the news of the Arab invasion 
reached these Franks they were the strongest nation in 
France and governed by an officer called the Mayor of 
the Palace. This ruler, Charles, became the man of the 
hour. Collecting an army of Franks, Gauls, Romans, 
and Burgundians, he called upon them to strike a blow 
for God and their country. "He moved as swiftly as 
the Moors themselves and in a plain near Tours fell 
upon them like a thunderbolt. The battle lasted only a 
few hours; the Moslem troops could not stand the mighty 
shock of the heavy northern infantry; the light African 
horse reeled under the onset of the great Flemish charg- 
ers." "Darkness came on; the Franks slept where they 
stood and drew up the next morning to begin the battle 
again, but no enemy appeared. Some Franks were sent 
to reconnoitre, entered the enemy's camp and penetrated 
into their tents. But no living man was to be found. 
(Longfellow's poem "The Day is Done.") The Arabs 
had decamped silently in the night, and left nearly all 
their booty behind them. The Battle of Tours had saved 
Europe." — John Bonner and Miss Yonge. 

Charles, the leader of the Franks, received the sur- 
name of Martel, meaning hammer, for the heavy blows 
he dealt the enemv in this memorable battle. "But for 



30 

him all Europe might have been Mohammedan, and 
perhaps — who can say? — you might to this day, at sun- 
set, have been praying to Allah on a prayer rug. ' ' — Bonner. 

Extent ojf Arabian Empire. — The remnant of the Sar- 
acen host made the best of the way back again to Spain, 
having concluded to postpone the destruction of Chris- 
tianity till a more convenient season. But that moment 
was destined never to take place. The limits of the 
Arabian empire had been reached. The Mohammedans 
held sway from the Indus to the Pyrenees, but Europe 
had been saved to Christianity by Greek fire on the east 
and German valor on the west. 

Division of the Mohammedan Empire. — For a century 
after the death of Mohammed the word of the Caliph of 
Damascus was law throughout the extent of the empire. 
No other monarch at that time held such absolute power. 
In a short time, however, dissension arose, which tore 
the empire asunder, and three rival caliphs issued com- 
mands from three capitals — Bagdad, on the Tigris; 
Cairo upon the Nile ; and Cordova, upon the Guadal- 
quivir. A common language and religion still held them 
together. All believed in Mohammed as their prophet, 
and prayed with faces toward Mecca. — Adapted from 
Myers. 

Caliphate of Ba<i'(la(l. — In 762 the capital of the East- 
ern Emi:)ire was changed from Damascus to Bagdad on 
the Tigris. This celebrated city was built around a hill 
which was crowned by the pavilion of the caliphs. It 
Avas defended from attacks without by a brick enclosure, 
fortified with 163 towers. Immense sums were spent on 
its decoration. In that stronghold of despotism the 



31 

caliphs of the East followed in the steps of the Persian 
kings, accumulated vast wealth and lived in the luxury 
of their pompous courts. A prime minister called the 
Vizier and officers of all kinds relieved the sovereign 
from all cares of government, but they also separated him 
from his subjects. " One caliph spent twelve million 
dollars in a single pilgrimage to Mecca. What had be- 
come of Omar with his bag of dates and his leather bot- 
tle of water ?" — Adapted from Duruy. 

Haroun-al-Rascliid. — The most noted of the Caliphs of 
Bagdad was Haroun-al-Raschid (the Just), contemporary 
of Charlemagne and hero of the "Arabian Nights." He 
made eight invasions of the Eastern Empire, forbade the 
Greeks ever to rebuild the town of Heraclius on the Pon- 
tus, which he had destroyed, and laid upon them a 
tribute which they were obliged to pay in money stamped 
with his image. But even while he was waging war 
on them, he borrowed from their science and their books, 
and made them popular among the Arabs by the protec- 
tion he accorded to scholars. His son founded many 
schools and spent enormous sums in the encouragement 
of science and literature. — Adapted from Duruy. (See 
"Arabian Nights.") 

Creation of the Turkish Guard. — Tn the ninth century, 
the caliph which followed Haroun-al-Raschid and his 
son, although victorious in the wars with the Greek Em- 
pire, prepared the way for the fall of the Arabian Em- 
pire by forming a guard of 50,000 Turkish slaves, 
bought in Tartary south of the Altai Mountains. The 
original Turks were a Mongol race from the high pla- 
teaus of Central Asia. As the Germans before this 



32 

pressed into the Roman Empire so now the Turks in- 
vaded the Arab Empire. The body-guard of Turks 
proved as fatal to the Arabs as tlie Goths did to the Ro- 
mans. They proved masters rather than slaves. This 
body of soldiers disposed, at their will, of the throne 
and the lives of the caliphs. In the midst of this an- 
archy the Caliphate of Bagdad fell to pieces. Indepen- 
dent dynasties were springing up on every side, founded 
generally by the Turks who had been made governors of 
provinces. In this way the Turks were introduced little 
by little into Southwestern Asia. As the Teutons took the 
religion of the Romans, so also the Turks accepted the 
faith of the Arab and became the ardent supporters of 
the Koran. About the time of the Norman conquest of 
England, the Turks conquered Bagdad, and in 1076 
they seized Jerusalem, where their brutal treatment of 
the Christian pilgrims caused the Crusades. — Adapted 
from Durny. 

Arabs in Africa. — Africa soon broke away from the 
Caliphate of Bagdad. The caliphs were masters of the 
Mediterranean in the ninth and tenth centuries, establish- 
ing themselves in Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, besides 
making several attacks on Italy. To guard against them 
Pope Leo lA^. enclosed the neighborhood of the Vatican 
with a rampart. The Fatimites, the greatest of the 
Mussulman dynasties in Africa, pretending to descend 
from Ali, built Cairo, made their residence there and ex- 
tended their rule over all Northern Africa, Syria, and 
even over Bagdad for a brief time. This dynasty brought 
prosperity to Egypt and gained wealth in return. They 
built superb mosques and made Cairo a center of science 



and literature, as Bagdad was in the East and Cordova 
in the West. — Adapted from Duruy. (See Crusades.) 

Arabian Civilization — Language. — The Arab language 
is exceedingly rich in certain respects. The Arab poets 
had an inexhaustible supply of synonyms to express 
common objects. They boasted of having eighty different 
terms to express honey, 200 for serpent, 500 for lion, 
1,000 for camel, and about 4,000 to express the idea of 
misfortune. The Arabian poet possessed an extraordi- 
nary memory that enabled him to make use of su,ch a 
multitude of words. One of them, Hammad, offered one 
day to recite to the caliph consecutively 100 poems of 
20 to 100 verses each, and the auditor was more quickly 
tired than the reciter. 

Sciences. — "As early as the first half of the ninth 
century, two astronomers of Bagdad measured, in the 
plains near the Red Sea, a degree of the meridian." A 
more exact calculation of the obliquity of the ecliptic, a 
more precise knowledge of the difference between the 
solar year and the sidereal year were discoveries of the 
Arabs. Samarcand, long before Europe, had a fine ob- 
servatory. They applied the pendulum to the reckoning 
of time ; employed in mathematics the Indian mode of 
numeration ; gave to algebra and trigonometry their mod- 
ern forms. It is possible that we inherit from them the 
mariner's compass and gunpowder, which may have 
been borrowed from the Chinese. Europe owes to them 
the use of linen paper. They excelled in the practice of 
medicine ; taught us the process of distillation and the 
use of rhubarb ; they discovered alcohol, the use of 
Med. His.— 3 



34 

senna, camphor, mercury, syrups, etc. A physician re- 
fused to go from Bagdad to Bokhara at the invitation of 
the sultan, on the plea that his private library would 
make four hundred camel-loads. Great public libraries 
were collected, one at Cairo being said to number 100,000 
volumes and the Spanish 600,000. — Adaj)ted froniDuruy. 
Architecture. — " Of the fine arts, they cultivated arch- 
itecture alone, as the law of their religion forbade the 
representation of animal life, and so cut off the possibil- 
ity of sculpture and painting." The principal element 
of their architecture, the pointed or horseshoe arch 
borne on pillars, was not their own invention, but was 
borrowed from the Byzantine. They supplied the places 
of painted or sculptured figures in their ornamentation, 
by arabesques which were originally inscriptions with 
meaning, but later became merely combinations of lines 
borrowed from the Arabic letters. These arabesques 
form the rich designs we admire in the carpets and stuffs 
of the East. The Arabian mosques and palaces are 
famed for the magnificence and luxury of the interiors, 
and the profusion of basins and fountains of gold and 
precious stones, which they obtained from the East and 
the mines of Southern Spain. One of the most magni- 
ficent monuments of this kind was the famous mosque at 
Cordova, with its 1,093 marble columns and its 4,700 
lamps ; another was the palace of Al-Tehra, built upon 
the banks of the Guadalquivir, where a jet of mercury 
fell sparkling into a shell of porphyry. The Alhambra, 
at once a palace and a fortress, can still be seen and ad- 
mired at Granada, and many parts of it, especially the 



35 

Court of Lions, are models of architectural beauty and 
splendor." — Adapted from Duruy. 

Irrigation. — "No one knew so well as those inhabi- 
tants of the desert how to make the best use of water in 
the work of cultivation under a burning sun. The sys- 
tem of irrigation instituted by them, and still preserved 
in the plain of Valencia, the garden of Spain, might 
serve as a model to the agriculturists of our own times. 
When they went to the great Roman cities and became 
acquainted with works of industry, they developed great 
skill as artisans. The reputation of Toledo for its arms, 
Granada for its silks, and Cordova for its harnesses, sad- 
dles, and leather goods, spread throughout Europe, and 
these products of infidel industry brought the highest 
prices. Spain especially profited by this time of splen- 
dor, as she was more peaceful than the East during the 
first centuries of the caliphate." — Duruy. (See Luxury 
of Moors, Irving's "Granada.") 

Granada. — "This renowned kingdom, situated in the 
southern part of Spain, and washed on one side by the 
Mediterranean Sea, was traversed in every direction by 
sierras or chains of lofty, rugged mountains, naked, 
rocky, and precipitous, rendering it almost impregnable, 
but locking up within their sterile embraces deep, rich, 
and verdant valleys of prodigal fertility. 

" In the center of the kingdom lay its capital, the 
beautiful city of Granada, sheltered, as it were, in the 
lap of the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountains. Its 
houses, seventy thousand in number, covered two lofty 
hills with their declivities, and a deep valley between 
them, through which flowed the Darro. The streets 



36 

were narrow, as is usual in Moorish and Arab cities, but 
there were occasionally small squares and open places. 
The houses had gardens and interior courts, set out with 
orange, citron, and pomegranate trees, and refreshed by 
fountains, so that as the edifices ranged above each other 
up the sides of the hills, they presented a delightful 
appearance of mingled grove and city. One of the hills 
was surmounted by the Alcazaba, a strong fortress, com- 
manding all that part of the city ; the other by the Al- 
hambra, a royal palace and warrior castle, capable of 
containing within its alcazar and towers a garrison of 
forty thousand men ; but possessing also its harem, the 
voluptuous abode of the Moorish monarchs, laid out with 
courts and gardens, fountains and baths, and stately 
halls, decorated in the most costly style of Oriental 
luxury. Such was its lavish splendor that even at the 
present day, the stranger, wandering through its silent 
courts and deserted halls, gazes with astonishment at 
gilded ceiling and fretted domes, the brilliancy and 
beauty of which have survived the vicissitudes of war 
and the silent dilapidation of ages. 

" The city was surrounded by high walls, three leagues 
in circuit, furnished with twelve gates, and a thousand 
and thirty towers. Its elevation above the sea, and the 
neighborhood of the Sierra Nevada, crowned with perpet- 
ual snows, tempered the fervid rays of summer; so that, 
while other cities were panting with the sultry and stifling 
lieat of the dog-daj^s, the most salubrious breezes played 
through the marble halls of Granada. 

" The glory of the city, however, was its vega or plain, 
which spread out to a circumference of thirty-seven 



37 

leagues, surrounded b^^loft}^ mountains, and was proudly 
compared to the famous plain of Damascus. It was a vast 
garden of delight, refreshed by numerous fountains, 
and by the silver windings of the Xenil. The labor 
and ingenuity of the Moors had diverted the waters of 
the river into thousands of rills and streams, and dif- 
fused them over the whole surface of the plain. Indeed, 
they had wrought up this happy region to a degree of 
wonderful prosperity, and took a pride in decorating it, 
as if it had been a favorite mistress. The hills were 
clothed with orchards and vineyards, the valleys em- 
broidered with gardens, and the wide plains covered 
with waving grain. Here were seen in profusion the 
orange, the citron, the fig, and pomegranate, with great 
plantations of mulberry trees, from which was produced 
the finest silk. The vine clambered from tree to tree; 
the grapes hung in thick clusters about the peasant's 
cottage, and the groves were rejoiced by the perpetual 
song of the nightingale. In a word, so beautiful was 
the earth, so pure the air, and so serene the sky of this 
delicious region, that the Moors imagined the paradise 
of their prophet to be situated in that part of the heaven 
which overhung the kingdom of Granada." — Irving. 

Palace of the Alhambra. — "The Alhambra was the 
royal abode of the Moorish kings, where, surrounded 
with the splendor and refinements of Asiatic luxury, 
they held dominion over what they vaunted as a terres- 
trial paradise, and made their last stand for empire in 
Spain. The royal palace forms but a part of the for- 
tress, the walls of which, studded with towers, stretch 
irregularly round the whole crest of a hill, a spur of the 



38 

Sierra Nevada or Snowy Mountains, and overlook the 
city. Externally it is a rude congregation of towers and 
battlements, with no regularity of plan nor grace of ar- 
chitecture, and giving little promise of the grace and 
beauty which prevail within. * * * Xhe great ves- 
tibule or porch of the gate is formed by an immense 
Arabian arch, of the horseshoe form, which springs to 
half tlie height of the tower. On the keystone of this 
arch is engraven a gigantic hand. Within the vestibule 
on the keystone of the portal is sculptured, in like man- 
ner, a gigantic key. * * * There was a tradition 
handed down from the oldest inhabitants tliat the hand 
and the key were magical devices on which the fate of 
the Alhambra depended. The Moorish king who built it 
was a great magician and laid the whole fortress under 
a magic spell. By this means it had remained standing 
for several years, in defiance of storms and earthquakes, 
while almost all other buildings of the Moors had fallen 
to ruin and disappeared. This spell, the tradition went 
on to say, would last until the hand on the outer arch 
should reach down and grasp the key, when the whole 
pile would tumble to pieces and all the treasures buried 
beneath it by the Moors would be revealed. * * * " 
The Court of Lions. — " Passing under a Moorish arch- 
way, we entered the renowned Court of Lions. No part 
of the edifice gives a more complete idea of its original 
beauty than this, for none has suffered so little from the 
ravages of time. In the center stands the fountain fa- 
mous in song and story. The alabaster basins still shed 
their diamond drops ; the twelve lions which support 
them and give the court its name still cast forth crystal 



39 

streams as in the days of Boabdil. The lions, however, 
are unworthy of their fame, being of miserable sculpture, 
the work probably of some Christian captive. The court 
is laid out in flower-beds, instead of its ancient and ap- 
propriate pavement of tiles or marble. The alteration, 
an instance of bad taste, was made by the French when 
in possession of Granada. Round the four sides of the 
court are light Arabian arcades of filagree work, sup- 
ported by slender pillars of white marble, which, it is 
supposed, were originally gilded. The architecture, 
like that in most parts of the interior of the palace, is 
characterized by elegance rather than grandeur, be- 
speaking a delicate and graceful taste, and a disposition 
to indolent enjoyment. When one looks upon the fairy 
traces of the peristyles and the apparently fragile fret- 
work of the walls, it is difficult to believe that so much 
has survived the wear and tear of centuries, the shocks 
of earthquakes, the violence of war, and the quiet, 
though no less baneful, pilferings of the tasteful trav- 
eler. It is almost sufficient to excuse the popular tradi- 
tion, that the whole is protected by a magic charm. * * *" 
"An abundant supply of water, brought from the 
mountains by old Moorish aqueducts, circulates through- 
out the palace, supplying its baths and fish-pools, spark- 
ling in jets within its halls or murmuring in channels 
along the marble pavements. When it has paid its trib- 
ute to the royal pile, and visited its gardens and parterres, 
it flows down the long avenue leading to the city, tink- 
ling in rills, gushing in fountains, and maintaining a 
perpetual verdure in those groves that embower and 
beautify the whole liill of the Alhambra." 



40 

"An Arab inscription says: 'How beautiful is this 
garden, where the flowers of earth vie with the stars of 
heaven ! Wliat can compare witli tlie vase of 3'on ala- 
baster fountain filled with the crystal water ? Nothing 
but the moon in her fullness shining in the midst of an 
unclouded sky.' 

''Those who have sojourned in the ardent climate of 
the South can appreciate the delights of an abode com- 
bining the breezy coolness of the mountain with the 
freshness and verdure of the valley. While the city be- 
low pants with the noontide heat, and the parched vega 
trembles to the eye, the delicate airs from the Sierra Ne- 
vada play through these lofty halls, bringing with them 
tlie sweetness of the surrounding gardens. Everything 
invites to that indolent repose — the bliss of southern cli- 
mates ; and while the half-shut eye looks out from 
shaded balconies upon the glittering landscape, the ear 
is lulled by the rustling of groves and the murmur of 
running streams." — Irriixj. 



THE ALIIAMBRA. 

Lonely and still are now thy marble halls, 
Thou fair Alhanibra ! There the feast is o'er, 

And with the murnmr of thy fountain falls 
Blend the wild tones of minstrelsy no more. 

Hushed are the voices that in years gone by 
Have mourned, exulted, menaced through thy towers. 

Within thy pillared courts the grass waves high, 
And all uncultured bloom thy fairy bowers. 

Unheeded there the flowering myrtle blows. 
Through tall arcades unmarked the sunl)eam smiles, 

And many a tint of softened radiance throws 
O'er fretted walls and shining peristyles. 



41 



And well might Fancy deem thy fabrics lone, 

So vast, so silent, and so wildly fair, 
Some charmed abode of beings all unknown, 

Powerful and viewless, children of the air. 

For there no footstep treads the enchanted ground; 

There not a sound the deep repose pervades, 
Save winds, and founts, diffusing freshness round, 

Through the light domes and graceful colonnades. 

For other tones have swelled those courts along. 

In days romance yet fondly loves to trace — 
The clash of arms, the voice of choral song. 

The revels, combats of a vanquished race ; 

And yet awhile at Fancy's potent call 
Shall rise that race, the chivalrous, the bold, 

Peopling once more each fair, forsaken hall 
With stately forms — the knights and chiefs of old. 

— Jlr.''. Ilemans. 



RISE OF THE TEUTONIC NATIONS. 

When the Roman Empire fell the barbarians of the 
South and North rose to assert their influence as nations. 
On the preceding pages we have traced the rise and de- 
cline of the power of those fearless riders of the desert, 
the Arabs ; now we will return to view the progress of those 
Teutonic, or Germanic people, who left their native forest 
and shattered the Roman Empire into fragments, then, 
upon the ruins of the civilization they had overthrown, 
laid the foundation of the modern nations. (See page 
322 Barnes.) 

Physical Germany. — Germany is divided into two dis- 
tinct portions ; the northern and larger part is a uni- 
form plain, while South and Central Germany are very 
much diversified in scenery. It possesses large plateaus, 



42 

such as that of Bavaria, which stretches away from the 
foot of the Alps, fertile low plains like that intersected 
by the Rhine, mountain chains and isolated groups of 
mountains comparatively low in height. 

Bavarian Plateau. — Bavaria is the only division of the 
country that includes within it any part of the Alps. 
This plateau, having an average height of 1,800 feet, 
slopes northward from the Bavarian Alps to the Bava- 
rian Forests (Bayerisher Wald), which must be regarded 
as a branch of the Bohemian Forest (Bohmisher Wald). 
It is watered by the Danube and its tributaries, the Inn, 
Isar, and Lech. The region is not very fertile, and many 
portions of it are covered with moors and swamps. To 
the westward low plateaus occupy the area between the 
Main and Neckar. 

SoutJiivesi Germany. — "The Schwazwald (Black For- 
ests) are a range of hills lying east of the upper Rhine 
valley in Baden, whose southern heights decline to the 
valley of the Rhine above Basle and to the Jura. On the 
north the range passes into the plateau, which slopes to 
the mouth of the Neckar. The summits of the Black 
Forests are round and covered with wood, the highest 
being 4,902 feet. 

Upper Rhine Valley. — " The valley of the upper Rhine 
extends 180 miles from south to north, and with a width 
of only twenty to twenty-five miles. In the upper parts 
the Rhine is rapid, and therefore navigable with diffi- 
culty. This explains why the towns there are not along 
the banks of the river, but some five to ten miles off. 
The western boundary of this valley is formed by the 
Vosges Mountains. These hills are bordered on the west 



43 

by the high plain of Lorraine and the coal fields of the 
Saar River, a tributary of the Moselle, The larger half 
of Lorraine belongs to France, but the German half, ob- 
tained in 1871, possesses great mineral wealth in its rich 
layers of ironstone and its coal fields. The hills south 
of Mainz (Mayence), on the west of the Rhine, are 
mostly covered by vineyards.. On the east from Mainz to 
Coblenz the hills are noted for mineral springs and for 
the vineyards which produce the best Rhine wines. To 
the north of the hills, east of Cologne and Dusseldorf, 
lies the great coal basin of Westphalia, the largest in 
Germany. 

In Central Germany lies Thuringia, a province consist- 
ing of a wooded ridge and an elevated plain to the north. 
This plateau is bounded on the north by the Hartz Moun- 
tains, an insolated group rich in minerals. East of Thur- 
ingia lies Saxony, noted for its metals and building stone. 
In Silesia are minor coal-fields. 

Northern Plain. — The north German plain is not abso- 
lutely uniform, having a range of low hills in the south. 
In general the soil can not be called fertile, the cultiva- 
tion nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant 
labor. Long stretches of ground are covered by moors, 
and there turf-cutting forms the principal occupation of 
the inhabitants. Tracts along the Elbe, and the marsh 
lands on the west coast of Hanover, Oldenburg, and East 
Frisia, which, within the last two centuries, the inhabi- 
tants have reclaimed from the sea by immense dikes, are 
districts of the utmost fertility. 

Climate. — It is regarded as intermediate between the 
Oceanic and Continental climates of western and eastern 



44 

Europe. It has nothing in common with the Mediter- 
ranean climate; in the west no chain of hills intercepts 
the warmer and moist winds which blow from the At- 
lantic, and these influence at times even the eastern 
regions of Germany. The warmest districts of the Ger- 
man Empire are the northern parts of the Rhine plain, 
from Carlsruhe downwards, also the valley of the Neckar, 
Main, and Moselle. Hence the vine is cultivated in these 
districts. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian table- 
land and in the hilly region of western Germany ; also 
the coast region of Hamburg and Bremen. The grape 
district is famous for the scarcity of rain. The provinces 
of central and southeastern Germany are to be classed 
among the more arid regions. 

Coast and Islands. — The coasts of Germany are shallow 
and deficient in natural ports, except on the east of 
Schleswig-Holstein, where wide bays encroach upon the 
land, giving access to the largest vessels, so that a great 
harbor for men-of-war has been constructed at Kiel. A 
canal now connects the North Sea and the Baltic. All 
the important trading ports are river ports, such as Bre- 
men, Hamburg, Stettin, Dantzic, Konigsburg. A great 
difference is to be remarked between the coasts of the 
North Sea and the Baltic. On the former, where the sea 
has broken the ranges of dunes formed in bygone times 
and divided them into separate islands, the main-land 
has to be protected by massive dikes, while the Frisian 
Islands are being gradually washed away by the waters. 
Sands surround the whole coast of the North Sea to such 
an extent that entrance to the ports is not practicable 
without the aid of i)ilots. Heligoland, which has be- 



45 

longed to England since 1814, is a rocky island ; but it 
also has been considerabl}^ reduced by the sea. The tides 
rise to the height of twelve or thirteen feet in the Jahde 
Bay and six or seven feet at Hamburg. The coast of the 
Baltic, on the other hand, possesses few islands. It has 
no extensive sands, though, on the whole, very flat. 
The Baltic has no perceptible tides, and a greater part of 
its coast line is, in winter, covered with ice, which also 
so blocks up the harbors that navigation is interrupted 
for several months in the year. 

Minerals. — Germany abounds in iron ore, but the de- 
posits are far from the coal, as in Hesse, Thuringia, 
Bavaria, Wurtemburg. Since the incorporation of Lor- 
raine, in 1871, to the German Empire, the pig-iron pro- 
duction of Germany exceeds that of France. The great- 
est advance in production of steel has been made. The 
celebrated Krupp works in Westphalia have for a con- 
siderable time supplied many European states with cast- 
steel guns. Germany stands second to Great Britain in 
manufacture of machines and engines. In agricultural 
machiner}', it can not compete with England. 

Germany produces more copper and silver than any 
otlior European state. (Zinc and salt, page 112 geogra- 

Cotton Manufacture. — As the cotton manufacture is 
pursued largely in Alsace, more than two million spindles 
being employed there, since 1871 the production of cot- 
ton fabrics in Germany exceeds that of France. 

Woolen and Worsted. — In this class of manufactures 
Germany is far behind France. First of all, the home 



46 

production of wool is not sufficient. Alsace and Saxony- 
are two of the centers of the manufacture of woolen cloth. 

Linen, Hemp and Juie. — Although linen was formerly 
one of Germany's most important articles of manufacture, 
she is now left far behind in this industry, not only by 
Great Britain and France, but also by Austria-Hungary. 
Hand-loom weaving is practiced all over Germany, but 
centers principally in Saxony, Silesia, and Westphalia. 

Army and Navy. — Every German capable of bearing 
arms must serve in the standing army for seven years. 
Three of the seven must be spent in active service and 
the remainder in the reserve. For five years more he 
forms a part of the landwehr. — Adapted from Britannica. 

Early German Civilization. — These German tribes 
called themselves DeutscJi or the people. In time they 
came to be called Ger-men or luar-men. Their native 
country south of the Baltic Sea was "full of marshes 
and forests in which large rivers rose and straggled, 
widening down to their swampy mouths. Bears and 
wolves, elks and buffaloes, ran wild, and were hunted 
by the men of the German tribes." (See page 322 
Barnes.) 

These men, our German ancestors, were a gigantic 
white-skinned, blue-eyed, yellow-haired race. 

"They lived in villages of rude huts, surrounded by 
lands to which all had a right in common, and where 
they grew their corn and fed their cattle. Their wives 
were much more respected than those of other nations; 
they were usually strong, brave women, able to advise 
their husbands and to aid them in the fight ; and the 
authority of fathers and mothers over their families was 



47 

supreme. The men were either freemen or nobles, and 
they had slaves, generally prisoners or the people of 
conquered countries. The villages were formed into 
what was called hundreds, over which, at a meeting of 
the freemen from all of them, a chief was elected from 
among the nobles ; and many of the tribes had kings," 
who were thought to be descended from the great god 
Woden. (Read Saxon Boy in "Ten Boys" by Jane 
Andrews ; Miss Yonge's History of Germany.) 

The Franks. — This German tribe, as we have already 
related, extended their dominion westward from the 
Rhine across northern France. They were destined to 
give a new name to Gaul and form the nucleus of the 
French nation. After the downfall of Rome, Clovis, 
then chief of the Franks, extended his authority over the 
greater part of Gaul. 

The Franks Become Christians. — Clovis was a heathen 
but he married a Burgundian maiden, named Clothilda 
who was a Christian. He allowed her to worship God 
in the Christian churches which had been erected by the 
Romans and still stood throughout Gaul. In the year 
496 A. D. the Germans came with a great army across 
the Rhine. Clovis with his army of Franks met the 
invaders near Strassburg (some authorities say near 
Cologne). A severe battle followed. Clovis was hard 
pressed and cried aloud, " Christ, whom Clothilda calls 
the true God, I have called on my own gods and they 
help me not! Send help and I will own thy name." 
The tide of battle turned as by a miracle and the 
king with 3,000 of his warriors received baptism at 



48 

Rhiems on Christmas Day, 49(3. — Adapted from Miss 
Yonge and Bnttcrworfh.. 

The Strassbiirg Cathedral. — That great monument of 
faith, the Strassburg cathedral, was founded by Clovis. 
" Its history is that of Germany. It grew with the 
German empire and has sliared all its triumphs and re- 
verses. In the tenth century it was burned, in the 
eleventh plundered ; and five years after it was nearly 
demolished by liglitning. It was after the last calamity 
that the present structure was begun. 

"At one time a hundred thousand men were employed 
upon it ; can we wonder that it is colossal? The giant 
grew. In 1140, 1150, and 1176 it was partly burned, 
but it rose from the flames always more great, lofty, and 
splendid. 

" Indulgences were offered to donors and workmen ; 
to contributors of all kinds. Men earned or thought 
they earned, their salvation by adding their mites to the 
spreading magnificence. In 1303, it is said that all the 
peasants of Alsace might be seen drawing stone into 
Strassburg for the cathedral. Master builder succeeded 
master builder, — died, — but tlie great work went on. 

" In the French Revolution the Jacobins tore from the 
cathedral the statues of two hundred and thirty saints ; 
but it was still a city of saints in stone and marble. In 
1870, in the Franco-Prussian war, its roof was perforated 
with shells, and on the 25th of August it burst into 
flames and it was telegraphed over the world that the 
great cathedral was destroyed. But it stands to-daj'-, 
majestic, regal, and beautiful, its spire piercing the 
sky." Its windows burn with color and seem to hang 



49 

in the air amid tlie shadows of the lofty walls. They 
represent scriptural subjects. 

'■'The cathedral is the wonder of the city. The ex- 
cursionist thinks of but little else during his stay there. 
Wherever he may be, the gigantic church is always in 
view. He beholds it towering above all." The wonder- 
ful clock in its steeple seems but a toy in this monument 
of art. — Bufferivorth's "Zigzag Journey of N. Lands." 
(See description of clock in Stoddard Pictures.) 

Kings of the Franks. — ' ' Clovis was the first Frankish 
chief who really made a home of Gaul, or who wore a 
purple robe and a crown like a Roman emperor. He 
made his chief home at Paris, where he built a church 
on the little island in the Seine, in honor of the Blessed 
Virgin. Though he had become a Christian, he was 
still a fierce, violent savage, who did many cruel things, 

"The Frank kingdom was only the north part of 
the country above the Loire. In the south, where the 
Romans had had i^ossession so much longer, and built 
so many more walled towns, the Franks never really 
lived." They used to rush down and plunder the country 
round about ; but then the townsmen shut themselves 
in, closed their gates, and strenghened their walls. The 
Franks having no machines to batter the walls, and no 
patience for a blockade, went home again with only the 
spoil of the country round. In these towns of the south 
the people called themselves Roman citizens still, and 
each place was governed by the old Roman law. Many 
Latin speaking Gauls lived in northern France as well, 
and were respected by the Franks for their knowledge 

Med. His.— 4 



50 

and skill. "The clergy, too, were most all Gauls ; and 
now the Franks were Christians in name at least, they 
seldom damaged a church or broke into a monaster3^ 
When Clovis died his four sons divided the kingdom 
among themselves. Not that they really governed, only 
each had a strong box filled with gold and jewels, and 
they were leaders when the Franks ^went out to plunder 
in the southern lands of Provincia and Aquitaine." — 
Miss Yonge's "Pop. Hist, of France.' ' 

The Do-nothiiig Kings. — Tlie line of kings who fol- 
lowed the sons of Clovis were called the long-haired 
kings. They hardly attended at all to the affairs of their 
kingdoms, but only amused themselves in their palaces 
at Soissons or Paris, thus obtaining the name of the do- 
nothing kings. The affairs of the kingdom fell into the 
hands of the king's steward who was called the Major 
Domi or Mayor of the Palace.'' Under the foolish do- 
nothing kings the Mayor of the Palace came to be a 
much greater man than the king himself. Charles Mar- 
iel who repulsed the Saracens at the battle of Tours was 
one of these mayors. 

Pepin the Short, the son of Charles Martel, wielded 
the same power as his father but soon coveted the title 
of king. After obtaining the consent of the Pope, he 
sent the last of the do-nothing monarchs, shorn of his 
long, yellow, royal locks, into a monastery and was him- 
self anointed King of the Franks by St. Boniface, the 
great missionary-bishop. Pepin was a great improvement 
on the do-nothing monarchs, but even he did not cause 
his sons to learn to write, looking upon that accomplish- 
ment as belonging to the clergy. — Adapted, 



51 

Beginning: of the Papal States. — At the request of the 
Pope, who was hard pressed by the Lombards, Pepin 
invaded Italy, humbled their king, and laid the keys of 
their conquered cities on the tomb of St. Peter as a gift 
to the Holy See. This was the beginning of the Pope's 
temporal authority, that is, holding lands like a king or 
prince. — Adapted from 3Iiss Yonge. 

Life of Charlemagne. — Pepin's son, Charlemagne, 
united the fragments of the old Roman Empire and was 
the greatest ruler of the Middle Ages. The Franks 
called him "Carl de Grosse ; " the Latin name was Car- 
olos Magnus and this Jias become in French Charlemagne. 

'Character and Dress. — "This noted king was, like his 
German ancestors, a giant in stature and strength, of 
commanding presence, and proficient in all manly exer- 
cises." — Quackenbos. "He was a powerful warrior, and 
very fond of hunting but preferred swimming to any- 
thing else. Nobody could dive or swim like him ; and 
he used to take large parties to bathe with him, so that a 
hundred men were sometimes in the river at once." — 
Miss Yonge. He wore the simple Frankish dress, which 
was "a shirt and drawers of linen, over them a tunic 
bordered with silken fringe, stockings fastened with nar- 
row bands, and shoes. In winter, a coat of otter or 
martin fur covered his shoulders and breast. Over all 
he wore a long blue mantle." "He was always girded 
with his sword, which became so famous that it received 
the name of Joyeuse, whose hilt was of gold and silver, 
his girdle being also of gold. Upon solemn festive occa- 
sions this sword was replaced by one enriched with pre- 
cious stones. ' ' — LijdiaH. Farmer's ' 'Boy's Book of Famous 



52 

Rulers." After he became emperor he assumed the royal 
purple but twice. He then wore a dress "embroidered 
with gold and his shoes adorned with jewels. His man- 
tle was fastened with a brooch of gold and he wore upon 
his head a glistening diadem of gold and gems." — Lydia 
Farmer. He discouraged useless extravagance in his 
courtiers and when he saw a young noble overdressed, 
he enjoyed taking him on a long muddy ride in the rain. 

Unlike his German ancestors he was strictly temper- 
ate in food and drink. Drunkenness, the greatest vice 
of his race, he abhorred. 

The domestic life of this great man was not at all in keep- 
ing with the majesty and goodness and uprightness of 
his public life. He quarreled with his brother and 
drove him into exile, where he soon died. He quarreled 
with his wife, the daughter of the king of Lombardy, 
and sent her back to her father. 

Conquests. — The king of Lombardy, enraged at having 
his daughter thrown back on his hands, declared war. 
Charlemagne marched into Itah' with a large army, 
drove the Lombards into Pavia and besieged them there. 
"It was a long siege, and Charlemagne had a chapel set 
up in his camp to keep Christmas in ; but for Easter he 
went to Rome, and was met a mile off by all the chief 
citizens and scholars carrying palm branches in their 
hands, and as he mounted the steps to St. Peter's 
church the Pope met him, saying, 'Blessed is he that 
cometli in the name of the Lord.' He prayed at all the 
chief churches in Rome, and then returned to Pavia, 
which was soon after taken. He then took tlie title of 



53 

king of the Franks and the Lombards, and put the iron 
crown of Lombardy on his head." — Miss Yonge. 

The Saxons. — All the German tribes except the Sax- 
ons were subjects of the king of the Franks. "These 
Saxons — the ancestors of the English and Germans of 
to-day — were then a tribe, or a band of tribes, settled in 
the country that is now northern Germany, between the 
Rhine and the Elbe, and stretching south as far as Bo- 
hemia. They lived either in the woods, so dense that it 
is said a squirrel could travel twenty miles, leaping 
from branch to branch, without touching the ground, 
or in vast prairies which were often water-soaked in 
summer and frozen over in winter. They had never 
been conquered and had never become Christians ; 
they were as brave and as fierce and as savage 
as they had been when they defied Caesar to invade 
their country. From France missionaries had gone 
to convert them, and had barely escaped with their 
lives." Charlemagne undertook the conversion of these 
Saxons by force. " To be near at hand for this work, 
he moved his court from Paris to Aix-la-Chapelle, which 
is near the Rhine in Germany." He then marched 
against the Saxons and overthrew their idol, which was 
a huge man with a balance in one hand and a flag in 
the other; on his arm hung a buckler, with a lion on it. 
The destruction of this statue so exasperated the Saxons 
that they rose again and again, flying to their wooded 
heights to gain breath, and renewing the war just when 
they were least expected. ''They had an exceedingly 
brave and ingenious chief named Witikind, who fought 
year after year, and was almost always beaten, yet was 



54 

never conquered. Charlemagne tried every device of 
war with small success." He once beheaded 4,500 
prisoners to strike terror to their friends. "Again 
he would surround Saxon settlements and transplant 
every one — men, women, and children — to some dis- 
tant part of France. But those who remained still 
continued to resist." Vast numbers of them were 
baptized in the Elbe and Weser rivers. They did not 
object so much to baptism, the meaning of which they 
probably did not understand. "They came to be bap- 
tized not once but many times, because they were pleased 
with the white robes provided them. But the baptized 
Saxons fought as fiercely against the Franks as those 
who had not undergone the operation. The war lasted 
thirty-three years. It was not till 805 that Charlemagne 
could say that it was positively ended, that the Saxons 
were finally subdued, and that his empire extended from 
the Atlantic Ocean to the Elbe and almost to the Oder." 
— '^Child's Hist, of France," Bonner. 

Crusade Against Saracens. — While this Saxon war was 
in progress, Charlemagne undertook a war against the 
Moors in Spain. " In 778 he crossed the Pyrenees and 
overran the country as far as the Ebro, where the Arabs 
offered him large gifts of gold and jewels if he would 
return without touching their splendid cities in the 
South. He consented, but as he was returning the wild 
Basque people of the mountains fell upon the rear guard 
of his army in one of the passes and plundered the bag- 
gage, slaying some of his bravest leaders. Among them 
was the famous Roland, concerning whom wonderful 
stories are told. It is said that he blew a blast on his 



55 

bugle with his last strength to warn Charlemagne who 
was far in the front. "Another legend makes him to 
have possessed herculean strength, in proof of which a 
great cleft is shown in the Pyrenees said to have been 
made by one stroke of his sword, and it bears the name 
of the " La Breche De Roland." — Adapted from L. H. 
Farmer's " Boys' Book of Famous Rulers." 

Campaigns. — Charlemagne made war successfully on 
all tlie peoples whom his predecessors had fought. He 
made fifty-two expeditions, the chief of which were 
against the Lombards, the Saracens, and Saxons, and 
were for the most part led by Charlemagne himself. 

Extent of Empire. — "His lands stretched from the 
Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean and the Ebro, from the 
Bay of Biscay to the borders of the Huns and the Avars, " 
comprising all modern France, half of modern Germany, 
four-fifths of modern Italy, and all of modern Switzer- 
land. 

Restoration of the Empire in the West (A. D. 800). — 
By the invitation of Pope Leo X. Charlemagne made a 
third visit to Rome in the year 800. On Christmas 
Day " the king came into the basilica of the blessed St. 
Peter, to attend the celebration of mass. At the moment 
when in his place before the altar he was bowing down 
to pray, Pope Leo placed upon his head a golden crown, 
and all the Roman people shouted, 'Long life and vic- 
tory to Charles Augustus, crowned by God the great and 
pacific emperor of the Romans ! ' " — L. H. Farmer. 

The empire in the west was thus revived and Charle- 
magne was the successor of the Csesars of Rome, em- 
peror of France, of Germany, and of Italy. 



56 

Renown of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne's title to the im- 
perial crown was recognized, though with reluctance, by 
the emperor of the East. His renown spread into Asia. 
" Haroun-al-Raschid, the Arabian caliph at Bagdad, be- 
ing an enemy of the Moors in Spain, sent gifts to the great 
king of the Franks — an elephant, a beautiful tent, a set 
of costly chessmen, and a water-clock, so arranged that 
every hour a little brazen ball fell into a brass basin, 
and little figures of knights, from one to twelve accord- 
ing to the hour, came out and paraded about in front." 
— Miss Yonge's "Young Folks' History of Germany." 

Schools. — But it was not only as a great warrior that 
Charlemagne is famous. He improved the laws and 
encouraged agriculture, established schools, founding at 
Paris the first university of Europe. "He gathered 
round him in his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle men of edu- 
cation from all nations, and, first of all modern mon- 
ai'chs, he encouraged learning." 

" In his palace he established a school, with great 
scholars at its head, and there, with as many noblemen's 
sons and other young men as chose to attend, he studied 
astronomy, theology, law, grammar, rhetoric, and music." 

Discussions on philosophy were held, and the monk 
Alcuin explained the theories of Pythagoras, Aristotle 
and Plato, or quoted Homer, Virgil, and Pliny. In their 
enthusiasm they took the names of their classical favor- 
ites, the king himself representing the royal Hebrew, 
David. Charlemagne was so fond of study that he had 
books read to him at meals and often stinted his sleep to 
gain time. " He learned Latin and Greek, and improved 
his native German by inventing German words for the 



57 

months and the winds." He paid great attention to 
astronomy, could calculate the courses of planets in his 
head. He caused a German grammar to be commenced, 
an attempt which was not repeated for hundreds of 
years. But with all his learning there was one thing 
he could not accomplish, which was to write a good 
hand. Though he kept his tablets under his pillow that 
he might improve any odd moments day or night, the 
hand that could so easily wield the ponderous iron lance 
was conquered by the pen. — Adapted. 

Government. — His government was a model for those 
times. His subjects so diverse in nationality and educa- 
tion were held under a most wise and powerful authority. 
The monarchy which he founded was strong in himself 
alone and when he died it perished with him. Yet each 
piece of his great empire possessed enough of the vitaliz- 
ing force which his mind and wisdom had given it to en- 
able it to rise an empire by itself. So, though Charle- 
magne's kingdom could not be preserved by his success- 
ors, from that great power rose the separate empires of 
France, Germany, and Italy. — Adapted. 

Death of Charlemagne. — "Charlemagne died in 814, 
iu his seventy-first year, and was buried at Aix-la-Chap- 
elle sitting upright, robed and crowned, in his chair 
with a sword by his side." — Miss Yonge. 

"There is a beautiful legend that Charlemagne visits 
tlie Rhine yearly and blesses the vintage. He comes in 
a golden robe, and crosses the river on a golden bridge, 
and the bells of heaven chime above him as he fulfills 
his peaceful mission. The fine superstition is celebrated 



58 

ill music and verse." — Butter worth's " Zigzag Journey of 
Northern Lands." Learn " Die Wacht am Rhein." 



LEGEND OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

By the Rhine, the emerald river, 

How softly flows the night ! 
The vine-clad hills are lying 

In the moonbeam's golden light. 

And on the hillside walketh 

A kingly shadow down, 
With sword and purple mantle. 

And heavy golden crown. 

'Tis Charlemagne, the emperor, 

Who, with a powerful hand, 
For many a hundred years 

Hath ruled in German land. 

From out his grave in Aachen 

He hath arisen there. 
To bless once more his vineyards, 

And breath their fragrant air. 

By Rudesheim, on the water. 

The moon doth brightly shine, 
And buildeth a bridge of gold 

Across the emerald Rhine. 

The emperor walketh over, 

And all along the tide 
Bestows his benediction 

On the vineyard far and wide. 

'Then turns he back to Aaclien 

In his grave-sleep to remain, 
Till the New Year's fragrant clusters 

Shall call him forth again. 

— Emanuel GeibeJ. From "Zigzag Journey." 



59 

Division of Cliarlema§:ne's Empire. — The mighty em- 
pire of Charlemagne, which was at first bestowed upon 
his son Louis, soon fell to pieces like the kingdom of 
Alexander. The grandsons, Louis, Charles, and Lo- 
thaire, quarreled over their respective shares, and after the 
dreadful ''Battle of the Brothers," a treaty was made 
which divided the empire among them (843). 

East Frankland or Germany was given to Louis. 
West Frankland or France to Charles, and the middle 
portions of the Frankish territory, including Italy and 
a long strip extending to the North Sea, between the 
dominions of his brothers, was given to Lothaire. This 
strip of land later took the name of Lotharingia or Lor- 
raine. 

From the time of this treaty in 843 the separation be- 
tween France and Germany was fairly accomplished. 
At that time the two countries spoke different languages 
though the French king clung for awhile to his Teutonic 
dress and manners. In 1843 Germany celebrated its 
1000th anniversary. 



RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 

I. ENGLAND. 

Anglo-Saxon Conquest. — (See " Roman Conquest " in 
Roman History.) About the. time Alaric and the Visi- 
goths appeared before the gates of Rome (A. D. 410), 
the legions were recalled from England and the frontier 
of the Rhine and the Danube, to protect the provinces 
nearer Italy. "This was a signal for the Picts and 
Scots to renew their incursions ; and the Britons in their 



00 

need are said to have solicited the aid of the Saxons, a 
German tribe near the Elbe. (Read Saxon Boy in " Ten 
Boys.") 

' ' These Saxons together with their neighbors the Angles 
were powerful sea-rulers on the German Ocean and Bal- 
tic Sea. They delighted in storms and tempests, and in 
their small vessels of osiers, covered with skins, they 
courageously sailed amidst the rough winds and foaming 
surges of the German Ocean, in search of conquest and 
wild adventure. They were clothed in loose and flowing 
garments, and wore their hair long, floating about their 
shoulders." — L. H. Farmer. 

Under the leadership of Hengist and Horsa these 
Saxons landed on the island of Thanet, at the mouth of 
the Thames, about the year 449. Vortigern, the king 
of Britain, offered to give them a large tract of country 
in the part of the country where they had landed, if the}'- 
would aid him in his contest with his enemies. Hengist 
and Horsa agreed to this proposal and they soon succeeded 
in defeating the Picts and Scots and driving them back 
to their mountains in the north. They received as recom- 
pense the island of Thanet, and it is related that Hengist 
gave his daughter Rowena in marriage to Vortigern to 
strengthen the alliance more closely. In six years' time 
Hengist took possession of the country between the 
Thames and the English channel, making Canterbury 
his capital. From that time it was the ambition of all 
the chiefs of the Saxon pirates to gain a firm footing in 
Great Britain, as the Frankish tribes had done in Gaul. 
"At last the Britons became alarmed at the increasing 
power of the Anglo-Saxons, and the result was a fierce 



61 

contest. It is related that King Vortigern, with three 
hundred of his officers, were invited by Hengist to a feast, 
and a quarrel having arisen, an affray occurred, in which 
the Britons were all killed, except Vortigern, who was 
taken prisoner, and was only ransomed by ceding three 
whole provinces to his captors. 

"The famous King Arthur, whose Knights of the 
Round Table have been so celebrated in fable and song, 
was a king of the Britons during these wars between his 
people and the Saxons-." — L. H. Farmer. He defeated 
them, it is said, in twelve battles, killing with his own 
hand in a single day 400 of his enemies. "When 
wounded, he was borne to an island formed by two riv- 
ers and died there, at what date is not known. His 
tomb has never been found. The Cambrians, whom he 
had defended so long, refused to believe in the death of 
their national hero, and for many centuries looked for- 
ward to his coming as the time of their deliverance. 
(See Tennyson's "King Arthur," also prose stories 
of ' ' King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. ' ' ) 

In two hundred years after this the Saxon power be- 
came supreme and the remaining Britons sought refuge 
in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. The Saxons founded 
seven states in England, each one having a separate 
ruler ; but, after a series of wars with each other, they 
were united in 827, under Egbert, who thus became sole 
monarch of England (Angle-land). 

"The Saxons were converted to Christianity at the 
close of the sixth century. Pope Gregory the Great, 
when a young deacon, passing through the Roman mar- 
Ret place, observed some 'air-haired youths exposed for 



62 

sale as slaves. Struck by their beauty he inquired to 
what country they belonged. Being informed that they 
were Angles, he exclaimed, 'Not Angles, but angels.' " 
— Quackenbos. In after days he remembered the fair cap- 
tives, and sent Au'gustine at the head of an embassy to 
Ethelbert, king of Kent, with a view to the conversion 
of their people. When the entreaties of his Christian 
queen, who was the daughter of a Frankish king, were 
united to the eloquence of Augustine, Ethelbert yielded, 
was baptized, and Christianity soon became the estab- 
lished faith of Saxon England 

Danish Invasion. — During the reign of Egbert, the 
first Saxon king, England, like France and Germany, 
was ravaged by hordes of northern pirates. "These 
sea-rovers came from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, 
and in search of plunder sailed the stormiest seas fear- 
lessly in open boats without decks. They were as val- 
iant fighters as they were expert mariners. They would 
land near a sea-coast town, rob it of everything that was 
worth taking, and escape with their booty." Those who 
invaded England were called Danes, though they were 
not exclusively the natives of Denmark, but came from 
all the shores of the Northern and Baltic seas. They 
were successfully repelled by Egbert's grandson, Alfred 
the Great. 

(Adapted from Bonner's "Child's History of France" 
and L. H. Farmer's "Boys' Book of Famous Rul- 
ers.") 

Alfred the Great. — In the year 871, Alfred the Great, 
one of the best and wisest kings that ever ruled England, 



63 

succeeded to the throne when he was twenty-two years of 
age. 

" Twice in his childhood he had been taken to Rome, 
where the Saxon nobles were in the habit of going on 
journeys which they supposed to be religious ; and once 
he had staid for some time in Paris. Learning, however, 
was so little cared for, then, that at twelve years old he 
had not been taught to read." " His mother, one day, 
showed him and his brothers a book of Saxon poetry, 
which was beautifully written and ornamented, and told 
them that she would give it to the one who should soonest 
learn to peruse it. Alfred applied himself with so much 
ardor, that in a very short time he was able to read the 
poem to the queen, who gave it to him as his reward. 
From this time he took the greatest delight in study ; but 
he had two great difficulties to struggle with ; one was, 
that there were so few books to be had ; and the other, 
that there were so few people among the Saxons who 
could teach him anything. 

"Notwithstanding all these obstacles, he soon became 
one of the most learned men of his time. Even when he 
was king, he always carried a book in the bosom of his 
robe, that, whenever he had a spare moment, he might 
be able to profit by it ; and thus, without neglecting 
any of his duties, he acquired a very extensive knowl- 
edge. 

"His time was divided into three equal parts; one- 
third was devoted to study, another third to sleep and 
refreshment, and the other to the affairs of his kingdom. 
As there were no clocks or watches in use in England, 
Alfred contrived to measure time by the burning of x;an- 



64 

dies. They were painted in rings of different breadths 
and colors — so many colors as he had duties to attend to, 
and thus he knew by the burning of these candles when 
he had been employed long enough about any one thing. 
But he found that when the wind blew upon them, they 
burnt more quickly ; and so, to remedy the inconveni- 
ence, he invented lanterns. 

" During the first eight years of his reign, he suffered 
continual persecution from the Danes, who at last ob- 
tained almost entire possession of the kingdom, and Al- 
fred was obliged to conceal himself. 

"x\t one time he assumed the disguise of a servant and 
hired himself to a cow-herd. One day, when he was in 
the cottage trimming his bow and arrows, the old man's 
wife, who did not know that he was king, told him to 
watch some cakes that were baking by the fire. Alfred; 
who had many other things to think of, forgot to turn 
them at the proper time, and they were spoiled. The old 
woman was very angry with him, and told him he was 
a lazy fellow, who would eat the cakes, though he would 
not take the trouble to turn them . 

"Resolving to learn by personal observation the exact 
strength of the enemy, he disguised himself as a harper, 
and entered the Danish camp. When Guthrum, the 
general of the Danes, heard him play and sing he was 
so much pleased with him, that he made him stay for 
some days in the camp, supposing him to be some poor 
minstrel. 

"Alfred made good use of his eyes all this time. He 
observed that the Danes, not thinking that the English 
could muster another army strong enough to attack them. 



65 

were quite off their guard, and were dancing and sing- 
ing, and thought of nothing but amusing themselves. 

"The king, having gained all the knowledge he 
wanted, slipped out of the camp, and throwing off his 
disguises, summoned his faithful subjects to meet him 
near Salwood Forest. The English, who had believed 
their beloved monarch to be dead, received the summons 
with great gladness, and joyfully resorted to the appointed 
place. 

"Alfred did not allow their ardor to cool, but led them 
against the enemy, who were completely defeated. In- 
stead of killing or making slaves of the prisoners, as 
was often done in that barbarous age, he permitted them, 
upon their becoming Christians and promising to live 
honestly, to remain in England. 

"They established themselves in East Anglia and 
Northumberland; but they and their descendants proved 
very troublesome subjects. 

"After the victory over Guthrum, England enjoyed 
many years of peace and tranquility. These were de- 
voted by Alfred to repairing the mischief which had 
been done by the Danes. The churches and monasteries, 
as they contained the greatest riches, so they had been 
the first objects of attack and destruction. 

"To repair these might seem no very difficult matter, 
for most of them were built of wood, and covered with 
thatch. Stones were only used in building castles and 
strong places of defense. When the Saxons came into 
Britain, they found a great many beautiful palaces, baths, 
churches, and other buildings of stone, which had been 
Med. His.— 5 



66 

erected by the Romans. Some of them were built with 
so much solidity that they would have remained to this 
day, if they had not been willfull}" destroyed. This was 
done by the Saxons, who made it a rule to destroy every 
town or castle that they took, instead of preserving them 
for their own use. They had been accustomed to live 
in wretched hovels, made of earth or wood, and covered 
with straw or the branches of trees; nor did they much 
improve their knowledge of architecture for two hundred 
years after their arrival in Britain. 

" Toward the clos.e of the seventh century, two Saxon 
clergymen, who were great travelers and had acquired 
some taste for architecture during their frequent visits 
to Rome, resolved to attempt an improvement in the 
the taste of their Saxon countrymen. They brought to 
England a number of masons, in order to build the 
church of their monastery of stone, after the Roman 
manner. " When the work was far advanced, agents 
were sent into France to procure glassmakers. These 
not only performed the work required of them, but 
taught the Saxons the art of making glass for windows, 
lamps, drinking-vessels, and other uses. The ancient 
Britons, indeed, were acquainted with this art, but the 
Saxons had never before acquired it. 

"This stone building with glass windows was an ob- 
ject of great curiosity and admiration, but did not find 
many imitators. When Alfred resolved to rebuild his 
ruined churches and monasteries, and to adorn his cities 
with stone buildings, he was obliged to send to foreign 
countries for workmen. But even in King Alfred's time 



67 

the use of stone did not become general, and glass win- 
dows were only to be seen in churches. 

" When the Romans invaded England, they instructed 
and improved those whom they subdued. But darkness 
and desolation marked the course of the fierce and illiter- 
ate Saxons. 

"As you may well suppose, Alfred was a liberal en- 
courager of learning. He established many schools and 
founded the University at Oxford. There were many 
impediments to progress in learning in those days. 
Books were very scarce and dear, so that few but kings 
and rich monasteries could afford to buy them. Alfred 
gave a great estate in land for a single volume on geo- 
graphy. 

" Paper was not yet invented, and parchment enough 
could not be had for a great supply of books." Neither 
was printing invented for a longtime afterward. There 
were no signs to represent numbers except the Roman 
letters I. V. C. C. M. The study of arithmetic was pro- 
nounced by Aldehelm, a learned Saxon bishop, to be 
almost too difficult for the mind of man. It was made 
easier b}^ the use of the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., which 
were used by the Arabians and introduced into England 
about the year 1130. 

"Alfred also endeavored to improve his subjects in the 
useful and ingenius arts, and invited many skillful for- 
eign workmen to instruct them. The English gold- 
smiths soon became very expert." " But the workmen 
most highly regarded were the blacksmiths, because 
they could make swords and other instruments of w^ar. 
Every soldier of rank was constantly attended by his 



68 

smith to keep his arms in order. The chief smith was 
an officer of great dignity at court. At table he sat next 
to the priest, and was entitled to a draught of every kind 
of liquor brought into the hall. 

"Alfred was very desirous of creating a strong naval 
force, considering that to be the surest defense against 
the Danes. But he had great difficulties to struggle 
with. His subjects knew nothing of ship-building, so 
he was obliged to get foreign ship-builders. In time his 
own subjects learned how to build ships, but there was a 
new difficulty — he had no sailors. These were also pro- 
cured from other countries, and at last a considerable 
fleet was constructed. This fleet did not prove a very 
effectual defense, for the Danes, coming in 330 vessels, 
under a famous leader named Hastings, succeeded in 
landing at Kent. A long contest ensued. At length 
the wife and children of Hastings were taken prisoners. 
Alfred gave them back on condition that all the Danes 
should leave the country. 

" Tlie remainder of the reign of this truly great king 
was prosperous. He lived beloved by his subjects, feared 
by his enemies, and admired by all mankind. The Eng- 
lish, and, as their descendants, we, are indebted to the 
wisdom of Alfred for many very useful laws and valua- 
ble rights. Among the rest, he instituted the right of 
trial by jury. Something like this had existed among 
the Saxons from the earliest times, but Alfred first re- 
duced it to a regular system and secured it by positive 
laws. 

"Alfred died in 901 in the forty-nintli year of his 
age." — S. G. Goodrich. 



69 



II. FRANCE. 

The Norsemen Invade France. — Even before the death 
of Charlemagne France had suffered by the depredations 
of the Norsemen or Northmen. That great monarch is 
said to have wept at the thought of the calamities which 
would befall his country after his death. He explained 
the cause of his tears to his courtiers, saying, " I fear 
not these pirates during my lifetime, but I foresee what 
evils they will heap upon my descendants and people." 

"Every year, as soon as the spring-birds began to 
sing, these sea-rovers came swooping down upon the 
coasts of France landing in some sheltered cove, seizing 
money, jewels, food, cattle, and' slaves, and dashing off 
to sea again with their booty. By and by they were not 
content with the sea-coast. They sailed up the rivers in 
their broad boats, fashioned in the shape of a serpent or 
a bird of prey, ribbed with iron, and provided with great 
beaks of bronze and ivoiy. Back of this beak stood a 
warrior, shouting, singing, gesticulating, to strike terror 
into the hearts of those who saw him." — Bonner. 

A branch of these same Northmen, whose chiefs were 
called Vikings, found their way across the northern 
ocean to Iceland and Greenland, and it is supposed they 
landed in New England five hundred years before Co- 
lumbus discovered America, but as they did not find 
anything worth stealing they went away. They found 
their way across the ocean by letting loose a hawk and 
following his flight, each ship being provided with a 
cage of these birds. 

" When the poor French peasants saw a fleet of these 
boats c me round the hill, dashing the foam from their 



70 

bows, and heard the horn and war cries of the warriors 
on the beach, they fled as swiftly as they could, with 
wives and children, and, if they had time, with such of 
their belongings as they could snatch up, to the nearest 
castle or monastery. Sometimes the count or the abbot 
was strong enough to give battle to the pirates. Con- 
vents, churches, and castles were generally robbed and 
their owners killed under their own roofs." — Bonner. 
The only way to induce the Northmen to leave the coun- 
tr}^ was to bribe them. In the reign of Charles, the 
grandson of Charlemagne, they sailed up the Seine, and 
departed only on the payment of several thousand pounds 
of silver. This tribute was demanded year after year, 
until finally in 911 Charles the Simple gave them the 
northern part of France, on condition that they would 
leave the rest in peace and embrace Christianity. The 
territory thus ceded was called from them Normandy, 
and the name Northmen became softened into Normans. 
"Their valiant chief Rollo was so tall that he could 
not find a horse in Norway large enough for him to ride, 
and going on his expeditions afoot, he was called Rollo 
the Marcher." — Quackenbos. When told that for the 
valuable grant of land he must do homage to the King 
of France he delegated the ceremony to one of his follow- 
ers. This ceremony consisted of kneeling before the 
king or over-lord, at the same time swearing to follow 
him in war and .be henceforth his man (Latin homo, 
whence "homage.") "The over-lord, in his turn, 
swore to aid him and be a true good lord to him in 
return, and kissed his brow. In return the under-lord, 
or vassal as he was called, was to kiss the foot of his 



71 

superior. This was paying homage. Kings thus paid 
homage and swore allegiance to the emperor ; dukes or 
counts to kings ; lesser counts or barons to dukes ; and 
for the lands they owned they were bound to serve their 
lord in council and in war, and not to fight against him. 
Lands so held were called fiefs, and the whole was called 
the feudal system. Now, Rollo was to hold his lands in 
fief from the king, and he swore his oath, but he was too 
proud to stoop to kiss the foot of King Charles. The 
Northman he chose to perform the ceremony was as 
proud as himself, and instead of kneeling, lifted the 
king's foot to his lips, so that poor Charles the Simple 
was upset, throne and all." — Miss Yonge. 

''Rollo was thus made a peer of France and received 
the title of Duke. He became a sincere Christian. Un- 
der his government, the churches were rebuilt, the fields 
were cultivated and robbery was almost unknown." In 
a short time these barbarians had adopted the language, 
manners, and religion of the French, and Normandy 
under their rule became the fairest province of France. 
The heathen Vikings, delighting in the wild life of sea- 
rover and pirate, had been transformed into Christian 
knights, eager for pilgrimages and crusades. (Read 
Norman Boy in "Ten Boys.") 

Feudalism. — During the terror of the invasion of the 
Norsemen the people naturally turned for protection to 
the neighboring lords, whose castles were their only 
refuge. The kings were powerless to defend or govern. 
The peasant was the one who suffered the most. In the 
north of France, bands of Northmen, in the south, bands 
of Moors, in the southeast, bands of Hungarians, whose 



72 

faces had been slashed to make them look more hideous, 
marched into the country at harvest time and carried 
off the ripe crops. To resist the robbers, the peasants 
armed themselves and selected one of their bravest men 
to lead them. In order to distinguish him from the. rest 
he received the name of lord, or seigneur, duke, count 
or baron. It was agreed that the land should belong to 
the lord and the peasant should liold it on lease from 
him. As there was very little money at that time in the 
country parts of France, the rent consisted of a quart of 
grain, a pig, or a fat goose once a year for a field or an 
acre. It was also. agreed that whenever the lord called 
upon the tenants to go forth to battle they were bound to 
do so. 

This was the feudal system, which, though it was 
greatly abused in later years, was the only protection for 
life and property at the time it was invented. The land 
which was owned by the feudal lords and leased to their 
tenants was called a " fief," and the tenants were called 
" vassals." 

Originally this relation of vassalage had nothing to do 
with the possession of land, but was a position of especial 
honor. As the custom of rewarding service with gifts 
of land became fixed, it was natural that the vassals 
should be first rewarded. Instead of keeping a standing 
army the Frankish kings found it far more convenient 
to give their lands into the hands of faithful subjects 
who should hold them and cultivate them and in return 
should not only agree to serve them in person, but to 
furnish upon their call a certain number of armed men 
ready and equipped for active military service. In like 



73 

manner the vassals of the king granted estates to their 
followers, who were called their vassals, and attended 
them in battle. This array of lords, with their retainers, 
constituted the feudal army. — Adapted. 

The castles in which the nobles or lords lived were 
enormous buildings, either round or square, massive, 
without ornament, and generally built on hills. "They 
were pierced with a few loop-holes, from which arrows 
could be shot, and had a single gate opening on a moat 
which could only be crossed by a draw-bridge ; they 
were crowned with battlements from which masses of 
rock, pitch, and melted lead were thrown upon an assail- 
ant who had been bold enough to approach the foot of 
the wall. The castles, the ruin of which are seen along 
the Rhine and in Scotland and France, now look like 
gray, jagged, and broken crows' nests torn by storms. 
Those who had no right to live inside the castle itself, 
who were neither nobles nor warriors, established them- 
selves at the foot of the great walls, under their mighty 
guardianship. In this way many European cities were 
formed. Those who built the castle, made the clothing 
and armor of the knights and baked the bread were 
called ' serfs.' One step higher than these were the 
free tenants called ' villeins. ' Unlike the serfs, they had 
their liberty, and, on condition of a yearly rent, they 
held the lands which they were able to transmit to their 
children." — Duruy and Emerton. (Read Lowell's " Sir 
Launfal.") 

" In the course of time these feudal lords came to be 
kings in fact, if not in name, in their respective fiefs. 
They had their own armies, their own courts, their own 



mints, their own system of taxes, tlieir own laws, quite 
independent of the king at Paris. Tliey were, it is true, 
required to pay homage to the king, which consisted in 
holding his stirrup when he was riding, or some such 
idle formality ; but practically the king had no authority 
over them at all. The peasants knew no superior but 
their own feudal lord." — Bonner. 

The kingdom of Hugh Capet, who had been chosen by 
the bishops and nobles in 987 as the first king of all 
France, was cut down to only a small territory along the 
Seine and Loire. Indeed he was only king in name, for 
Normandy, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Campagne, Toulouse, 
each had its separate government. The Duke of Aqui- 
taine, who was a feudal lord, ruled a much larger coun- 
"try, and so did the Duke of Burgundy. 

The king and the church were constantly jealous of 
the power of the nobles, but in their grim strongholds 
they continued to defy all authority until the close of the 
Middle Ages. The Crusades first broke the strength of 
feudalism and the introduction of fire-arms completed 
its downfall. (See page 426, Myers.) 

Chivalry. — In the days of Hugh Capet, there was very 
little good in the world. All France was in a turbu- 
lent, cruel, and savage state. It was the belief of all 
good Christians that the world was to come to an end, 
and that the Day of Judgment was to come in the year 
1000. The fields were left untilled, and in consequence, 
famines and epidemic diseases broke out. "In the 
midst of these dark days some French nobles, filled with 
pity for the wretchedness they saw around them, united 
to remedy existing evils. They pledged themselves to 



75 

defend the weak and become the champions of the op- 
pressed ; the church blessed their undertaking;" and 
thus the institution of Chivalry was established, the 
germs of which were found in society before the age of 
Charlemagne. The name of Chivalry was applied to the 
system, from the chevaliers who enrolled themselves in 
its support and who constituted the order of knighthood, 
to which admission was obtained by formal ceremony. 
From France this institution rapidly spread to England, 
Spain, Germany, and Italy, in all of which countries the 
Teutonic race was now established. — Adapted. 

All persons of gentle blood, except those designed 
for the church, followed the profession of arms and were 
trained from childhood in the duties and exercises of 
knighthood. In early youth they lived as pages in the 
courts of the nobles or of the king. There in the pres- 
ence of high-born ladies and knights, they were trained 
to serve their mistress and imitate the gallantry of their 
superiors. Their studies were limited to music, chess, 
and memorizing their Latin Code of Manners. They 
were intrusted with the messages of the lady of the castle, 
cared for her falcon, and obeyed her slightest wish. "In 
the tender days of his pagehood he first learned the les- 
son of love and reverence, cherishing, as of inestimable 
value, the slight favor from his lady's hand. The depth of 
this feeling is illustrated in a German romance, which rep- 
resents a devoted page as opening a wound in his bosom 
to lay gold thread which his mistress had given him, as 
near as possible to his heart. His lady's presence was the 
greatest incentive to valorous deeds that a knight could 
have. He wore her scarf, ribbon, or glove on his helmet, 



76 

and in her name would make tlie most extravagant vows 
and swear to perform impossible feats. And sometimes her 
caprice would exact from him achievements which taxed 
both strength and courage to the utmost. We read that 
at a German court some knights and ladies were viewing 
two lions confined in an inclosure, when one of the ladies 
threw in her glove and commanded her lover to recover 
it. He leaped in, threw his mantle over the beasts as 
they rushed toward him, picked up the glove and sprung 
out in safety; but even his loyalt}^ could not blind him 
to his lady's unreasonable caprice, and he immediately 
renounced one who could wantonly subject her true knight 
to such danger." — Quackenbos. 

"At the age of fourteen the page was made a squire and 
his training became more severe. He was taught to 
endure fatique, thirst, and hunger, to run long distances, 
to turn somersaults in heavy armor, to wield his weapons 
with agility and skill, and to manage his fiery barb with 
grace and dexterity. " — Quackenbos. He was also assigned 
to duties about the castle such as setting and serving a 
table, grooming the horses, or caring for the armor of 
the knights. Each squire served some individual knight 
whom he was bound to obey, to attend iii battle, and 
serve with his very life in case of need. 

"Although he attends his lord in battle, he is not ex- 
pected to take part in the fight. He is in little danger, 
for, as he wears no armor, it is considered dishonorable 
for a knight to attack him. He stands ready to render 
any assistance which his lord may require. If he is 
overthrown, he helps him to rise; if he is wounded, he 
carries him from the field ; if tlie wound is mortal, he 



77 

receives bis lord's dying commands, and, after his death, 
bestows upon bis body an honorable burial. 

"An early English writer thus describes the exercises 
of the youth : ' Crowds of noble and sprightly youths, 
mounted on war horses, admirably trained to perform 
all their turnings and evolutions, ride into the fields in 
distinct bands, armed with lances and shields, and 
exhibit representations of battles. The hope of victory 
rouses the spirits of these noble youths. Their fiery 
horses neigh and prance, and champ their foaming bits. 
At length the signal is given and the sports begin. The 
youths, divided into opposite bands, encounter one 
another. In one place some flee and others pursue, 
without overtaking them. In another place, one of the 
bands overtakes and overturns the other.' " 

At the age of twenty-one, the young noble's probation 
is over. "If he is perfect in his martial exercises, 
courteous in his demeanor, polite and attentive to the 
ladies, obedient to his superiors, respectful to his elders, 
skilled in music and dancing, possessed, in short, of all 
knightly accomplishments, he is admitted to the order 
of knights. The candidate for knighthood prepares 
himself by fasting and praying. Having bathed and 
clothed himself in a white garment, as a symbol of the 
purity and truth that must distinguish his future life, 
he enters the church, and, advancing to the altar, pre- 
sents his sword to the priest, who blesses it and then 
returns it to him. The novice then, with clasped hands, 
falls upon his knees before the elder knight, who takes 
from him the sword, and administers the oath. He 
swears to speak the truth; to maintain the right; to 



78 

protect the distressed ; to practice courtesy ; to defend his 
religion ; to despise the allurements of ease, and to vin- 
dicate in every perilous adventure the honor of his 
name. He is then invested hy the knights, or ladies, or 
damsels present, with the exterior marks of chivalry — 
his spurs, his coat of mail, his brassards (the covering 
for the arms), his gauntlets or iron gloves, and, lastly, 
his sword is buckled on. Then the elder knight, rising 
from his seat, gives him the blow on his shoulders with 
the flat of the sword, saying: 'In the name of God, of 
St. George, and of St. Michael the Archangel, I make 
thee knight, rise up, Sir John! ' or 'Sir Thomas,' or 
whatever his name may be. The helmet, buckler, and 
lance are now given, after which, mounting, and cur- 
vetting his steed, brandishing his lance, and glittering 
his sword, the new knight parades about amidst the 
acclamations of the people. 

'' Sometimes an esquire had an opportunity of per- 
forming some gallant action in battle, and was knighted 
upon the field. This was esteemed the most honorable 
mode of obtaining it. Such knights were called knights- 
bannerets. Others devoted their lives to the protection 
of the injured and helpless. They were not formed in- 
to any regular body, but were quite independent of one 
another, and traveled about from place to place for the 
purpose of redressing grievances. These were called 
knights-errant. This class of knights might well do a 
great amount of good in those lawless times, when might 
made right. The whole institution of chivalry did in- 
finite service in softening the ferocious manners of the 
times." — S. G. Goodrich. (Condition of the Family in 



79 

Feudal Times — Duruy, page 214. Read Sir Walter 
Scott's " Ivanhoe.") 

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES — Continued. 

Danish Conquest. — England continued to prosper dur- 
ing the rule of the son of Alfred the Great and his grand- 
son, Athelstan. In the eleventh century the sovereigns 
were men of feeble minds and the Anglo-Saxons became 
a submissive, unwarlike people. During the reign of 
Ethelred the Unready, the Danes grew more powerful. 
After several times purchasing peace from the invaders, 
Ethelred secretly ordered a massacre of all the Danes in 
the country (1002). As might have been expected the 
Danes retaliated by sweeping like a whirlwind through 
distracted England. Finally the king of Denmark him- 
self came with a great fleet. "The beaks of the ships 
were of brass and under the beaks were figure-heads, 
finely carved and painted, of men and bulls and dol- 
phins. On the mast-heads were figures of birds and 
dragons to serve for weathercocks, and the sterns were 
adorned with golden lions." f Church's '' Stories of 
England.") 

The English were powerless to resist him and Ethelred 
fled over the sea to France. The sudden death of the 
King of Denmark prevented the Danes from gaining the 
immediate possession of tlie island, but in 1016, his 
son, Canute, became king of Engand. He was also 
ruler of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. His wise 
and impartial rule did much to conciliate the English 
and for eighteen years England prospered under Danish 



80 

rule. " His regard for the laws is shown by the follow- 
ing anecdote : Having in a moment of anger slain a 
soldier, he insisted on being tried and sentenced like 
any common offender. His judges decided that he 
should inflict his own penalty, and, as murder was then 
punished by a fine, he paid 3G0 talents. 

"Another anecdote is told of the method which he used 
to rebuke his flattering courtiers. They carried their 
absurd adulation to so extravagant a length as to declare 
in his presence that the very elements were under his 
control, and nothing in nature dared disobey his com- 
mands. 

"One day while walking with his attendants by the 
seaside at Southampton he undertook to rebuke this ser- 
vile flattery in a striking manner. He ordered his chair 
to be placed on the beach while the tide was beginning 
to rise, and taking his seat he exclaimed to the waters in 
a voice of authority, '0 Sea ! Thou art under my con- 
trol, and the land on which I sit is mine. I charge thee 
to approach no further, nor dare to wet the feet of thy 
sovereign ! ' But the rising billows, regardless of his 
command, dashed upon the shore and forced him to re- 
tire. The king turned to his flatterers and said: 'Learn 
from this example the insignificance of all human power, 
and that God alone is omnipotent ! ' He then took the 
crown from his head and, we are told, never wore it 
afterwards, but ordered it to be put on the image of the 
crucified Christ. ' ' — Goodrich. 

"Amid the cares of his extensive kingdom, Canute 
found time for pious works, built churches, and went 
on a pilgrimage to Rome." — Quackenbos. 



81 

"After his death in 1036, his sons, Harold, Harefoot 
and Hardicanute, successively held the crown." The 
sons lacked their father's ability and contests arose 
which in seven years resulted in the restoration of the 
old Saxon line. 

Edward the Confessor, the son of Ethelred, ascended 
the throne in 1042 and was hailed with joy by the peo- 
ple. Their joy, however, was of short duration, for 
having spent part of his life in Normandy, he intro- 
duced the language and customs of that country, and 
filled the court with Norman favorites. This provoked 
a rebellion on the part of the Saxon nobles, and in the 
end the odious foreigners were outlawed. Edward was 
devout in his ways, though a negligent ruler, and for 
this reason gained the surname of Confessor. He is 
said to have spent a tenth part of the whole wealth of 
the kingdom in building a great church at Westminster, 
the precursor of the magnificent church built afterwards 
by King Henry III. Edward was too ill to be present 
at the consecration, December 28, 1065, and died a few 
days after. He was buried in his new church where his 
tomb may be seen at the present day. 

Harold, a prominent Saxon noble, was chosen king of 
England and was crowned at Westminster. "He did 
not find the throne a peaceable possession; for William, 
Duke of Normandy, immediately asserted his right to it, 
under pretense that Edward had left him the kingdom 
in his will. To maintain his claim, William went wnth 
a large army to England, where he landed on the 28th 
of September, 1066. — Adapted. 
Med. His.— 6 



82 

Norman Conquest of England. — ''On the 14th of Octo- 
ber, 106G, was fought the great battle of Hastings, a 
battle that completely changed the fate of England. 
Harold was killed by a wound in the eye with an arrow, 
and William gained a complete victory. The result of 
this conflict threw the English into the utmost conster- 
nation. 

" Some of the nobles assembled at London to deliber- 
ate in regard to the successor to the throne, but before 
they had time to come to a decision William, the Con- 
queror, was at the gates. The greater part of the nobles 
went to meet him and offered him the vacant throne, 
which he, with a little pretended hesitation, accepted. 
He was crowned at Westminster on Christmas Day, 1066, 
and thus was completed the Conquest of England, as it 
is called." — S. G. Goodrich. 

"William began his reign with so much prudence 
and moderation that his new subjects thought they had 
great reason to be satisfied. But whilst he treated 
them with seeming confidence and friendship, he took 
care to place all real power in the hands of the Nor- 
mans. He everywhere disarmed the Saxons and built 
fortresses in all the principal cities, placing Norman sol- 
diers in them." — Goodrich. 

"The Anglo-Saxons, however, were not entirely sub- 
dued ; they broke out into insurrections, and at last the 
king, determining to strike terror into their hearts, 
marched northward, burned their towns, and put thou- 
sands to the sword." — Quackenhos. 

" The Anglo-Saxon nobility were driven into exile, or 
dispossessed of their territories, and the greater part of 



83 

all the landed property of England fell into the hands of 
the king, who rewarded his followers for their services 
by granting them the domains which he had seized or 
confiscated. He made military service the indispensable 
condition of these donations, and thus England was 
soon covered with strong castles, and the feudal system 
became established to the full extent." The Normans 
called themselves after their casiles and fortified towns, 
thus introducing surnames. — Peter Parley. 

Formation of English Language. — As a part of his plan 
for reducing the Anglo-Saxon to complete subjection 
William used every means to introduce the Norman- 
French language and manners into England and to 
eradicate that of the Anglo-Saxon. " French was taught 
in the schools, spoken at court and employed exclusively 
in the tribunals of law. He could not, however, compel 
its use by the lower classes. They obstinately adhered 
to their own vernacular ; and not till their prejudices 
against their conquerors had been softened by the lapse 
of fifty years were they willing to modify their own 
tongue and enlarge its vocabulary by drawing on the 
language of the Normans. From this time changes 
were rapidly made ; and the grafting of numerous ele- 
ments from the versatile Norman-French upon the 
homely but nervous Saxon stock produced our present 
English (about 1350)." — Quackenbos. (See " Ivanhoe," 
by Sir Walter Scott. ) 

"Among the oppressive institutions of this monarch 
were the Forest Laws and the Curfew. William was es- 
pecially fond of hunting, and not content with sixty- 
eight deer friths, besides parks and chases, he made what 



84 

was called the New Forest, by laying waste a tract of 
thirty square miles, demolishing churches, and destroy- 
ing hundreds of homes. The Curfew was a bell rung at 
eight o'clock as a signal for extinguishing lights and 
fires." " Its original design is said to have been to pre- 
vent nightly meetings for conspirators." — Quackenbos 
and Peter Parley. 

Benefits Derived from Norman Conquest. — The Nor- 
man Conquest, strange as it may seem, left many of the 
civil institutions of the Saxons undostroyed, or changed 
only in name. The Wittenagemote (see Miss Andrew's 
"Ten Boys") still survived under the appellation of 
parliament. The liberties of England were not abridged. 
On the countrary it established a powerful and active 
aristocracy, which was strong enough at times to give 
the law to the sovereign. It promoted the emancipation 
of the slaves and protected the privileges of the free. 

"The greatest benefit derived by England from the 
Norman conquest was the new vigor and sjjirit which it 
gave to the national mind." A new race of men, in- 
spired by that love of glory which made every Norman 
restless till he had acquired personal improvement and 
distinction, was spread over the kingdom. "The wealth 
and situation of England opened new avenues to fame, 
and drew from all parts of Europe the most aspiring and 
the most able men to enter the lists for honor and profit. 
A new creative vigor appeared afterward in every field 
of human merit. Activity and enterprise became the 
characteristic qualities of the nation ; and the different 
classes, attaching themselves to various pursuits, infused 
the spirits and enlarged the boundaries of improvement 



85 

in all. In war, in religion, literature, trade, and amuse- 
ments, the Anglo-Normans became active and indefatig- 
able." (From Peter Parley's '' European History.") 

Literature and Arts. — "During the reign of William 
the Conqueror's son, Henry I, the manufacture of cloth 
first received attention in England. Paper made from 
rags became common, and parchment went out of use. 
Agriculture was greatly improved by the Normans; the 
land was drained, and the wastes produced by the Dan- 
ish wars were restored to fertility." 

The stories of "King Arthur and the Knights of the 
Round Table" were published for the first time, also a 
reliable History of England. "Poetry, music, and archi- 
tecture were diligently cultivated. Abbeys and churches 
were erected on all sides, and adorned with paintings 
and statues. Monks were the principal architects and 
builders of these edifices. The monks also constructed 
organs, the chief, if not the only instrument used in 
worship, and spent much time in illuminating manu- 
scripts, an art that now attained great perfection." — 
Quackenbos. 

'. III. GERMANY. 

' Comparison with France. — In Germany, also, feudal- 
ism took deep root during the terrible Norseman invas- 
ions. Germany contained five separate nations — Franks, 
Saxons, Thuringians, Bavarians, and Swabians — whose 
dukes were almost independent in their realms. In France 
the crown gradually absorbed the feudal states, and so 
formed a powerful kingdom ; but in Germany the power 
of the crown, though strong at first, became weak. The 
royal family dying out in the second or third generation. 



8G 

made it necessary that the ancient system of election 
should be restored in Germany at the very time when it 
disappeared from the customs of France. The struggle 
between the king and the feudal lords was alike in both 
countries — but the results were different. Germany had 
no central city for capital like Paris, around which the 
national sentiment could grow, and while France reached 
an extreme centralization, Germany become more and 
more divided. 

Ancient People of Austria. — At this period Germany 
was continually ravaged by the Magyars or Hungarians, 
who had left their original abodes in the Ural mountains 
and were occupying the plains of Hungary. These bar- 
barians were even more cruel than the Norsemen ; they 
were believed to be cannibals, and to drink the blood of 
their enemies. 

In 918, Henry, the Duke of Saxony, was chosen king 
because he was thought to be the only man who had 
skill enough to defend Germany against the barbarians. 
Tliough victorious in his first battle with them, he was 
forced to make a truce for nine years, and pay them a 
tribute in gold. This time lie spent in training his peo- 
ple in arms. He instituted games that are said to have 
been the beginning of the tournament. All men of 
lower rank were to be trained in arms from their thir- 
teenth year, and were commanded to meet near the vil- 
lages every three days to drill. Seeing the need of walled 
cities, he ordained that every ninth man of the district 
should be stationed in the nearest "burg," or fortress, 
while the others were to keep his fields in cultivation. 
This was the origin of the burghers of Germany. 



"He built also storehouses in the fortresses in which 
one-third of all the crops were to be deposited, and he 
required that their assemblies and markets, their public 
festivals and marriages, should be held within the 
walls." 

When his country was well prepared for a war Henry 
defied the Hungarians and totally defeated them, driving 
them back into their country. Shortly after their sec- 
ond defeat by Henry's successor, they embraced Chris- 
tianity, and under Stephen the Pius (1,000) advanced 
in the arts of peace. The military province established 
by the Germans between their country and Germany was 
at first called Oster (East) March, a name since changed 
to Austria. — Adapted from Duruy, Miss Yonge, and Barnes. 

Otto the Great, the son of Henry, was crowned king 
at Aix-la-Chapelle a short time before his father's death. 
" The dakes, princes, and all the great noblemen of the 
country assembled in the ' Hall of Columns,' where stood 
tlie throne of Charlemagne, and proclaimed him king. 
After his election the archbishop of Mainz presented him 
to the people assembled in the church, with these words: 
'This is he who has been chosen by God, designated by 
our late lord and king, Henry, and who has been raised 
to the throne by all the princes, the noble Lord Otto. If 
the choice pleases you, raise your right hands.' The 
people all raised their hands. It was a last remnant of 
the old custom of election by the whole tribe, and not 
by the chiefs alone." — Duruy. Then he was led to 
the altar, where he was given the sword to chastise the 
enemies of Christ, the mantle of peace, the scepter of 
power, and after being annointed with oil, received the 



88 

golden crown of Karl the Great. A great feast followed, 
and all the dukes served him according to their offices, 
though many of them, including his own brothers, soon 
rebelled against him. He proved so brave, wise, and for- 
giving that he forced them all to submission, and, like 
his father, was strong enough to hold the German tribes 
together as one nation. He waged war against the Bo- 
hemians, Poles, and Danes, and, following the policy of 
Charlemagne, attempted to make them at once Chris- 
tians, and subjects of his empire. Wishing to re-estab- 
lish the Holy Roman Empire of Charlemagne, Otto 
crossed the Alps at the head of an army, and without 
much opposition received at Milan the crown of the 
Lombards, and at Rome that of the Caesars. Henceforth 
the kings of Germany claimed to be the kings of Lom- 
bardy and Roman emperors, and felt it the greatest honor 
to be head of Christendom and guardian of the faith of 
the Catholic Church. In protecting their Italian inter- 
ests the emperors wasted German blood and treasure that 
should have been devoted to Germany. They were Of ten 
absent for years, and meanwhile the dukes and counts 
became almost sovereign princes. From this it may 
easily be understood that Germany remained a group of 
almost independent states until 1871 (see Modern His- 
tory), instead of growing into a united nation like other 
European peoples. — Adapted. 

The controversy which arose between the Pope and 
the German emperors resulted during the Crusades in 
the triumph of the papacy. (See story of "Frederick 
Barbarossa," Third Crusade.) 



89 
THE CRUSADES. 

CONDITION OF THE WORLD BEFORE THE FIRST CRUSADE. 

"Within this world of the Middle Ages, there were 
two entirely distinct worlds — that of the Gospel and that 
of the Koran. They had already come sometimes into 
collision; but, finding that they were nearly equal in 
strength, they had been content with tacitly dividing 
tlje known world between them. The Koran ruled from 
the Pyrenees to the mouth of the Ganges; the Gospels 
ruled the whole of Europe, with the exception of Spain. 
Only the two outer edges of these two worlds had come 
into contact with each other in the frontier wars, but 
the time had now come when they were to be involved 
in a general war." — Duruy. 

Throughout Christendom the German spirit pre- 
vailed. A system of society essentially German in char- 
acter had rescued Europe from chaos and anarchy, and 
was now attaining its complete development. That 
system was feudalism. "Feudal castles, defended by 
rampart and moat, crowned every height, and feudal 
knights, wearing chain mail, bestriding mettled steeds, 
and attended by mounted spearmen, rode about, impos- 
ing awe alike on priests and crowned kings, on peasants 
occupied with tillage and burghsrs engaged in trade." — 
Edgar. 

We have said all of Europe was thus ruled, but we 
have lost sight of that remote corner of Christendom — 
the remains of the Empire of the East, which dragged 
out a barren and insignificant existence, like an island 
•surrounded by the floods of invasion. "The separation 



90 

between the Empire of the East and the German peoples 
had become even wider, since it had become a rehgious 
separation also." The Greek church was the original 
Christian church, and was the source and background 
of the Western. Christianity arose in the East, and 
Greek was the language of the Scriptures and the early 
services of the church. When the old Roman empire 
fell in two, the Greek Church became separate in govern- 
ment, interest, and ideas from the Western. The Greek 
Church is ruled by bishops and does not acknowledge 
the supremacy of the Pope. A disputed point in the 
creed and some differences in observances, such as the 
use of leavened instead of unleavened bread, and the 
marriage of the priests, led to a complete separation of 
the churches in 1054. — Adapted from Britannica and 
Duruij's "Middle Ages." 

Though separated from the rest of Christendom, the 
Empire of the East had repelled repeated attacks of the 
Russians and Bulgarians from the north until the former 
wished a peaceful alliance. After the marriage of their 
chief with the daughter of the emperor (980 A. D.), 
peace reigned between the two peoples, and Christianity 
became introduced into Russia. The principal Greek 
churches of to-day are those of Russia and Greece. 

As before related, the Greeks lost all their territory in 
Asia Minor in the first great attack of the Arabs, in the 
seventh century. In the tenth century, however, the 
Greek army not only regained Cilicia and S3Tia, but 
went still farther, crossing the Euphrates and striking 
terror into the heart of Bagdad. — Adapted from Duruy. 

Invasion by Turks. — The Arabian empire was now in a 



91 

decline, and a new and formidable enemy was about to 
appear. The Turks, who have been introduced before, 
as the body-guard of the Caliph of Bagdad, now came in 
hordes across the Oxus. ''Their flocks and herds were 
their only riches ; their tents, either black or white, were 
covered with felt and of a circular form ; their winter 
apparel was sheep-skin; a robe of cotton, their summer 
garment; the features of the men were harsh and fero- 
cious; the countenance of the women soft and pleasing. 
Their wandering life maintained the free exercise of 
arms ; they fought on horseback. " ' ' The Turkish slaves, 
who aspired to the throne of Bagdad, encouraged these 
emigrations, which recruited their armies, awed their 
subjects and rivals, and protected the frontier of the 
Arabian Empire," as the Goths did that of the Romans. 
Their numbers may well be understood by the following 
story: The sultan had inquired of a chief what supply 
of men he could furnish for military service. "If you 
send," replied the chief, "one of these arrows into our 
camp, fifty thousand -of your servants will mount on 
horseback." "And if that number," continued the sul- 
tan, "should not be sufficient?" "Send this second 
arrow to the horde of Balik, and you will find fifty thou- 
sand more." "But," said the sultan, dissembling his 
anxiety, " if I should stand in need of the whole force 
of your kindred tribes?" "Dispatch my bow," was 
the last reply of Ismael, "and as it is circulated around, 
the summons will be obeyed by two hundred thousand 
horse." The apprehension of such formidable friend- 
ship led the sultan to transport the most obnoxious tribes 
where they would be separated from their brethren by 



92 

the river Oxus and enclosed on all sides by obedient 
cities. 

As the Arab power declined, these barbarous tribes 
overran Persia, and gradually adopted the dress, lan- 
guage, and refinement of the Persians. The most deserv- 
ing of the Arabians and Persians were promoted to the 
honors of the state ; and the whole body of the Turkish 
nation embraced, with fervor and sincerity, the religion 
of Mahomet. In 1071 the victorious Turks conquered 
Armenia and captured the Greek Emperor, Romanus 
Diogenes. Their dominion soon extended from the bor- 
ders of China to the Bosporus and Mediterranean. 

Jerusalem was taken about 1076, and the Arabian gov- 
ernors retired into Egypt. — Adapted from Gibbon. 

Pilgrimages to Jerusalem. — "Under Constantine I, 
in the fourth century A. D., Christianity arose from the 
cross to wear the crown of the w^orld. Temples and 
churches covered the holy places of Jerusalem, Bethle- 
hem, and Nazareth." "A pilgrimage to Jerusalem, or 
other hallowed spots, became the most popular of pen- 
ances. In the general belief, to atone for the greatest 
sin, one had only to bathe in the Jordan or spend a night 
on Calvary. 

" The pilgrims increased in number, and at last St. 
Helena, mother of Constantine, at the age of seventy- 
eight, visited the holy places and discovered what was 
supposed to be the wood of the true cross." " She ren- 
dered her visit memorable by founding the Church of the 
Nativity at Bethlehem, and Constantine, influenced by 
his mother's example, built a magnificent church on the 



93 

site of the Holy Sepulcher." — Edgar and Zigzag Jour- 
ney. 

"No sooner liad the war-like Germans and Northmen 
been converted from the worship of Thor and Odin to a 
knowledge of the truth, than they became eager to visit 
those places where their Redeemer had taught and suf- 
fered, made the blind to see and the lame to walk, restored 
life to the dead, and given hope to the living. The roads 
to Zion were crowded with pilgrims eager to worship at 
the Sepulcher; Jerusalem became the seat of a patriarch; 
new and splendid churches were erected ; monasteries 
sprung up on the banks of rivers and on the sides of 
mountains ; and thousands of Europeans remained in 
Palestine to devote their lives to works of beneficence 
and charity. 

Conquest by Persians. — '' But evil days were at hand. 
At the beginning of the seventh century the Persians, 
who had long been formidable foes of the Eastern Em- 
pire, penetrated to Palestine, took the Holy City by 
storm and destroyed the church of the Holy Sepulcher. 
After shedding much blood and doing much mischief, 
they withdrew, carrying with them the true cross, the 
patriarch, and many of the principal inhabitants. After 
ten years of mourning and woe, however, the scene 
changed, and the Greek Emperor, Heraclius, triumphing 
over his pagan foes, brought back the surviving cap- 
tives. Deeming the true cross by far the most glorious 
of his trophies, the Emperor entered the city walking 
barefoot, and carrying the sacred relic on his shoulders." 

The sacred edifices were now repaired and everything 
seemed prosperous, the Christians congratulating them- 



94 

selves that their troubles were at an end. But at this 
period, as we already know, a new race of conquerors 
arose to influence the world. 

Conquest by Arabs. — In 036 the Caliph Omar entered 
Jerusalem on his rough-haired camel, and the city was 
now under Mohammedan rule. The presence of the Mos- 
lem rulers in Syria and Palestine did not prevent pil- 
grimages to the Holy Sepulcher. " Haroun-al-Raschid, 
the most famous of the caliphs at Bagdad, prompted by 
respect for the name of Charlemagne, regarded them with 
favor, and treated them with kindness. All pilgrims to 
the city, without danger, found entertainment in a hos- 
pital, surrounded by gardens and vineyards, and many 
found a resting place in a cemetery, shaded wdth trees, 
near the fountain of Shiloh." About the middle of the 
tenth century the caliphs of Cairo obtained possession of 
Syria. They, feeling anxious to enrich their dominions, 
encouraged pilgrimages for the sake of the gold and sil- 
ver received in exchange for relics and consecrated 
trinkets. " During the first five decades of the eleventh 
century, saints and sinners flocked from the west to Jeru- 
salem. A belief prevailed in Europe that the ' second 
coming of Christ ' w^as at hand. People of all ranks, in 
hopes of atoning for their sins, rushed to the east. The 
caliphs, glad to replenish their treasury, demanded a 
piece of gold from every one who entered the gates of 
Jerusalem, and, as most of the Christians left home with 
nothing but their script and staff, the exaction of this 
tribute proved most cruel." But these trials were slight 
compared with the persecutions which were yet to be 
visited upon them, 



95 

Conquest by Turks. — ''Entering where Roman, and 
Persian, and Arabian had come before them, the Turks 
slaughtered and devastated without the slightest distinc- 
tion. Mosques and churches were given up to pillage, 
and the blood of Christian and Egyptain flowed in the 
same stream. 

"With ferocious foes in Jerusalem and ferocious foes 
in Asia Minor, Christians in the East found their plight 
deplorable. When Peter the Hermit turned his thoughts 
toward Palestine, matters had come to the worst. Chris- 
tians were beaten with rods, loaded with chains, sold as 
slaves, and harnessed like oxen. Never had they felt 
so much misery, never had they entertained so little 
hope, as when Peter the Hermit took the cross at Amiens, 
France, and turned his steps eastward to worship at the 
Holy Sepulcher." — Compiled from Edgar. 

THE FIRST CRUSADE. 

Peter the Hermit. — "One day in the year 1094, when 
the Conquest of England by the Normans had inspired 
feudal warriors with a desire for adventurous exj^edi- 
tions, a little man, mounted on a mule, might have been 
observed to ascend the heights of Emmaus, and come in 
sight of Jerusalem. The appearance of the rider was 
most eccentric; indeed the woolen mantle gathered 
round his person, the thick cord that girded his waist, 
the monk's hood thrown over his head, and the sandals 
on his feet, formed a costume so grotesque as to attract 
notice wherever he appeared. But the rider, Peter the 
Hermit, was probably in no mood to notice criticism; 



96 

for liis soul must have glowed with ardor as he ambled 
onwards to the Holy City. 

"Jerusalem could no longer have been described the 
most glorious city of the East. Formed of mosques, 
and churches, and square houses, surmounted by flat 
terraces, situated on four hills, encircled by a strong- 
wall which undulated with the uneven ground, and sur- 
rounded by sterile plains and barren mountains, where 
a few thorns and olives struggled into growth, and where 
a solitary palm-tree, here and there, stood erect, the city 
presented an aspect suggestive of mournful reflections. 
The fervor of the Hermit was aroused to the highest 
pitch when he gazed with entranced eye on Zion and 
Olivet, and on Moriah, where the site of the Temple was 
occupied by Omar's mosque, and on Calvary, where the 
Church of the Resurrection stood as a monument of 
Constantine's piety. " — Edgar. 

Taking up his abode under the roof of a Latin Chris- 
tian, he heard recited the woes endured by the Christians 
until his blood boiled. He occupied himself with med- 
itating schemes for their relief. At length, one day, 
when prostrated before the Holy Sepulcher, a celestial 
voice seemed to call to him: "Arise, Peter; go forth to 
proclaim the tribulations of my people, for the time has 
come when they must be protected and this Holy Sepul- 
cher wrested from the hands of the infidel." Filled with 
enthusiastic faith by these words, Peter believed himself 
to be the chosen deliverer of Jerusalem, and immediately 
repaired to the house of the patriarch. Simeon, who now 
held that office, was a man advanced in life, with white 
hair and venerable figure. But neither his age nor sa- 



97 

cred office had protected him from insults and injuries. 
In a voice devoid of hope, the patriarch recited the suf- 
ferings of his people, and bewailed the fate of the holy 
city. '* But is there no remedy? " cried Peter. " Must 
these calamities continue without redress? " Slowly and 
sadly the patriarch responded: "These sufferings are 
plainly the visitation of a most wise God upon a sinful 
people, and there is no earthly help." "0, let me but 
rouse the Christian warriors of the West, and Jerusalem 
may yet be free," exclaimed the excited Peter "If 
they but knew of your miseries they would come to your 
aid. Write then to the pope and to the Latin Christians 
and affix your seal to the epistle. I will do penance for 
my sins by traveling through the West to raise an army 
for your cause." 

Gathering hope from these stirring words of Peter, the 
patriarch shed tears of joy, and immediately prepared 
the letters, imploring aid from the pope and the Western 
Christians. Without delay Peter set out on his mission, 
which was to influence the destinies of Europe and Asia 
for centuries to come. 

Arriving at Rome, Peter gained an audience with Pope 
Urban the Second. The pope listened to his appeal 
with favor, and, regarding him as a prophet, commis- 
sioned him to arouse tlie warriors of Europe 

Preaching: the First Crusade.— Never did enthusiast 
meet greater success in convincing his hearers. Crossing 
the Alps into France, he electrified city, town, castle, 
and hamlet with his eloquence. He recited the pitiful 
tale of the patriarch; how the devout believers were 
Med. His.— 7 



98 

spurned and insulted at the very tomb of Christ, and 
whenever it pleased the bloody-minded followers of 
the prophet, they were thrown into prison, beaten, and 
even put to death. Would not the Princes of the West 
go to their rescue and deliver the Holy Sepulcher out of 
the hands of the savage Turk? Wherever Peter the 
Hermit preached — in the churches, at the market places, 
or under a tree by the wayside, the people revered him 
as a saint, and crowded around him, deeming themselves 
happy to touch the hem of his garment or pluck a hair 
from the mane of his mule. His fame even crossed the 
channel, and Saxon and Norman alike were fired with 
zeal. 

While Peter was arousing Christendom to arm for the 
recovery of the Holy Sepulcher, the pope received let- 
ters from Alexis, the Greek emperor, imploring his as- 
sistance, and that of the Western Princes. He pointed 
out the dangers which would befall Christianity if Con- 
stantinople were captured by the Turk, and offered boun- 
tiful rewards for the services rendered. From this aj)- 
peal it was evident that the Greeks no longer possessed 
courage and strength enough to fight their own battles. 

Council at Clermont. — The pope now convoked a coun- 
cil at Clermont, in France, which was attended by three 
hundred bishops and a multitude of princes and nobles 
of the West. Though it was winter time, the pope crossed 
the Alps to preside and found Clermont a vast camp. 
The city itself was crowded with princes,, prelates, and 
ambassadors ; the neighboring towns and villages were 
filled to overflowing, and in spite of the severity of the 



99 

weather, thousands were encamped in pavilions and tents 
in the meadows and fields. 

Pope Urban, accompanied by Peter the Hermit, and 
attended by cardinals, ascended a throne and related the 
miseries of the faithful at Jerusalem and the desecration 
of the holy places. " Christian warriors," said Urban, 
addressing the assembled multitude, " rejoice, for you, 
who without ceasing seek vain pretexts for war, have to- 
day found true ones. You are not now called to avenge the 
injuries of men, but injuries offered to God ; and it is not 
now a town or a castle that will reward your valor, but 
the wealth of Asia, and a land flowing with milk and 
honey. If you triumph over your foes, the kingdoms of 
the East will be your heritage. If you are conquered, 
you will have the glory of dying where Christ died. This 
is the time to prove that you are animated by a true 
courage, and to expiate so many violences committed in 
the bosom of peace. When Christ summons you to His 
defense, let no base affections detain you at home — listen 
to nothing but the groans of Jerusalem, and remember 
that the Lord hath said : ' He that will not take up the 
cross and follow me is unworthy of me.' " 

At first the multitude listened in solemn silence to the 
words of the pope, then broke forth into sobs as he pic- 
tured the cruelties practiced at Jerusalem. 

"Will you not drive out the handmaid and her children, ' ' 
continued the pope, ''lest they increase in power and 
Eu-rope be threatened by these enemies of Christ? Gird 
your swords to your thighs, ye men of might; it is our 
part to pray, and it is yours to fight — ours, with Moses, 



100 

to hold up unwearied hands ; yours to stretch forth the 
sword against the children of Amelek." 

"God wills it ! " shouted with one accord the enthusi- 
astic multitude, as they surged ahout the speaker with 
excited faces and uplifted swords. 

"God indeed wills it," responded the pope. "Go 
forth, bravo warriors of the cross ; and let * God wills it ' 
be your watchword and battle cry in the holy war." 

A loud cry of " God wills it ! " again broke from the 
tumultuous crowd ; but, at a gesture from the pope, 
silence fell upon the great assembly and stern warriors 
bent their knees, as the cardinal pronounced a form of 
confession for those wlio would enlist in the holy enter- 
prise. 

Thereupon a noted bishop stepped forward to receive 
the sacred badge of the cross and take the oath of loyalty 
to Christ. Following his example, knights and barons 
now crowded around the pope, that they might receive 
the red cross and enter the way of God. All who took 
the oath stitched the red cross upon the right shoulder 
of the mantle and became soldiers of the cross — or Cru- 
saders. Entire remission of sins was granted to all 
taking part in the holy war, which was called tlie Cru- 
sade. 

The council was then dissolved, the pope continuing 
his preaching throughout France, the knights repairing 
to their castles to prepare for the expedition, which all 
agreed should take place the following spring. Already 
France resounded with the din of preparation. From 
Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, men of all classes 



101 

assumed the cross and could scarcely be restrained from 
setting out in mid-winter. — Adapted from Edgar. 

Mustering of the Crusaders. — The nobles mortgaged 
their estates and with the money thus raised equipped 
armies for the Holy War. Among the foremost of these 
was Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, a prince re- 
jiowned for piety, learning, and courage. It was in his 
father's house that Peter the Hermit had lived as a re- 
tainer before he became a monk. No prince in Europe 
had a more enviable position than Godfrey. A lord of 
many castles, of vast fortune, and of spotless reputation, 
yet all these advantages failed to secure happiness. 
Memory was constantly recalling scenes in which he 
had taken a prominent part which no longer met the 
approval of his conscience. In his early life he had 
fought under the banjier of Henry IV, King of Ger- 
many, against the pope. During the siege of Rome it 
was Godfrey who, first of the imperial captains, broke over 
the ramparts and opened the gates of the city. Filled with 
remorse as he reflected on this sinful revolt against the 
head of the Church, he now eagerly assumed the cross, 
hoping to atone for the sins of his rash youth by giving 
his life, if need be, in recovering the Holy Land from 
the infidels. 

He proceeded to sell or mortgage his castles and 
estates; he transferred his cities and principalities, gave 
up his duchy, that he might deprive himself of every 
temptation to return. With the money obtained, he 
arrayed a magnificent army of ten thousand knights, the 
flower of European chivalry, while a force of eighty 
thousand foot made up the body of his army. His prin- 



102 

cipal officers were his two brothers, Eustace and Bald- 
win, his kinsman, Baldwin du Bourg, with many knights 
and nobles of less distinction. 

While Godfrey was assembling his forces by the Meuse 
and Moselle, the warriors in the south of France were 
rallied to the cross by Raymond, Count of Toulouse. 
Though an aged soldier with whitened locks, his ardor 
was not diminished, and he aroused hin:isclf to take part 
in the enterprise. "In my youth," he said, "I fought 
the Saracens in Spain, and, in my old age, I will go and 
fight them in Asia." The Bishop of Puy, who was 
first to assume the cross at the council of Clermont, ac- 
companied Raymond of Toulouse, and a hundred thou- 
sand men of Gascony and Provence flocked to the old 
count's standard. 

Meanwhile Hugh of Vermandois, brother of the King 
of France; Robert of Flanders; Stephen, Count of Blois; 
and Robert, Count of Paris, also rallied their knights 
and retainers and made ready for the march into Asia. 
All Normandy was kindled by the crusading fervor. 

The court of Rouen furnished two gallant leaders. 
These were Robert Short Hose, son of William the Con- 
queror, and Edgar Atheling, heir of the Saxon line in 
England. 

Robert Short Hose possessed all the elements of a gen- 
uine crusader — brave, rash, fanatical, so improvident 
that he was often reduced to a state of ridiculous poverty. 
Indeed, the chronicler states that he was frequently pre- 
vented from leaving his bed and attending mass for want 
of decent clothes. Excluded from the English throne 
by his younger brother, William Ruf us, the situation of 



103 

Curthose was not enviable. The prospect of escaping 
from his creditors was too tempting to be resisted. Will- 
iam Rufus, rejoicing to hear of his brother's intention of 
leaving Europe, readily furnished the sum of ten thou- 
sand marks, and Curthose gave a mortgage over Nor- 
mandy for five years. When he set up his white banner 
embroidered with gold, multitudes came to join a leader 
so generous and brave. 

Different Routes. — The pilgrim princes appointed Con- 
stantinople as a rendezvous, and agreed to set out at 
different dates and to pursue different routes. The coun- 
tries through which they were to pass were already half 
exhausted by the ravages and excesses of the vanguard 
of the Crusade, led by Walter the Penniless and Peter 
the Hermit, and that rabble which recognized the lead- 
ership of a goat and a goose. (See accounts in Rid- 
path's, Edgar's, Duruy's, and Barnes's histories.) They 
therefore commenced their expedition eastward, all 
grandly arrayed. Godfrey's armies passed through Ger- 
many and Hungary. The men of Southern France, led 
by Robert of Toulouse, crossed the Alps and passed 
through Dalmatia and Thrace. Robert Short Hose and 
the Count of Blois,of Flanders, and of Vermandois, went 
to join the Normans of Italy, who were led by Bohe- 
mond, Prince of Tarentum, and his nephew, Tancred, 
who, next to Godfrey, was the most perfect knight of the 
times. These together crossed the Adriatic and passed 
through Greece and Macedonia. 

Every warrior wore a casque and hauberk of chain 
mail. .The infantry carried long shields, the cavalry 
round bucklers for their defense, and a goodly supply of 



104 

swords, lances, poniards, axes, maces, bows, slings, and 
cross-bows, with which to pursue the work of carnage 
and destruction. Knights and nobles, grooms and 
squires were equally unaware of the obstacles to be en- 
countered. Many of the warriors took with them their 
wives and children, and rode along with bugles at their 
girdles, hawks on their wrists, and hounds running by 
their side. They seem to have considered the Crusade 
as a sort of pleasant excursion, and to have anticipated 
reaching the Holy City, if not without fighting battles, 
at least without storming fortresses. (Tennyson's " Bu- 
gleSong.") 

The rabble vanguard of the soldiers of the cross had 
not left a favorable impression upon the Greeks at Con- 
stantinople. We can imagine with what dismay the 
Emperor Alexis heard the news, that vast armies com- 
posed of the bravest warriors of France were marching 
toward his capital on their way to encounter the Sara- 
cens. 

He began to repent of having implored their aid, for 
now they seemed as formidable as the Turk. He knew 
only too well the corruption of his own heart, the inse- 
curity of his throne, and (he cuj)idity of his enemies. If 
those bold Northmen should attempt to seize his domin- 
ions he realized that his army of mercenaries was no 
match for the mail -clad warriors of Godfrey and Ray- 
mond. He therefore resolved to depend upon artful 
craft. 

While Alexis was forming his plans, it happened that 
Hugh of Vermandois, brother of the king of France, 
was shipwrecked on the shore of Epirus. Alexis, per- 



105 

ceiving his opportunity, ordered Count Hugh to be seized 
and brought to Constantinople as a hostage for the good 
conduct of his comrades, the Crusaders. Godfrey of 
Bouillon, having learned of this act of treachery on his 
arrival in Thrace, dispatched messengers to demand the 
count's freedom. An unsatisfactory answer was returned 
by the emperor, and soon a crowd of flying Greeks 
brought word into the capital that the Crusaders were 
ravaging the country and treating the Greeks as enemies. 
In alarm Alexis sent to promise satisfaction, and God- 
frey bade his warriors refrain from further injury to the 
Greeks. But the army of the Crusaders had no sooner 
reached the gates of the city, when Alexis closed the gates 
and conceived the idea of starving them into submis- 
sion. The result which might have been expected fol- 
lowed. The Crusaders burst into the suburbs of the 
city, plundered palaces and villages, captured store- 
houses, and helped themselves bountifully to whatever 
good things the fruitful East had heaped up in her lap. 
Alexis, soon perceiving that he had adopted the wrong 
policy, sent a messenger to Godfrey, promising to supply 
the army out of stores of the city; then, with some reluc- 
tance, the Crusaders refrained from pillaging. Notwith- 
standing the outward show of friendship that now ex- 
isted between the two races, quarrels were of frequent 
occurrence. The Greeks regarded the Franks as barbar- 
ians, the Franks taunted the Greeks with being unable 
to fight their own battles. 

Crusaders at Constantinople. — The emperor within the 
walls was kept in continual alarm by the threatening 
aspect of the crusading host. He now set his heart on 



106 

a new scheme, which he hoped would avert the mischief. 
He determined to demand homage of these Western 
princes encamped outside of his gates, so that they 
would be compelled to fight for his interests. Such 
oaths of fealty, if once given, could not be honorably or 
even decently violated. Having secured such an oath 
from Hugh, who was still a prisoner, he was confident 
of success with the other princes. It was only by send- 
ing his son to the Crusaders' camp as hostage that he 
gained the consent of Godfrey, Robert Short Hose, and 
the counts of Flanders and Blois (Bohemond and Tancred 
had not yet arrived). Raymond of Toulouse scornfully 
refused, saying, "I have not come to the East to seek a 
master." 

Wishing to impress the Crusaders with the majesty of 
his court, at a day appointed, he received the princes in 
his imperial palace. He hoped by superficial magnifi- 
cence to conceal the real weakness of his empire, and did 
not perceive that those who bent the knee before his 
throne had a perfect contempt for his power. While the 
emperor was presenting the Crusaders with rich gifts, a 
slight incident awoke him from his delusive dream. 

Count Robert of Paris, feeling such disdain for the 
mummery that was enacting, could not refrain from 
showing his contempt. Just when the ceremonies were 
intended to be most impressive, this stalwart son of the 
ancient sea-kings strode boldly forward to the throne 
and sat down beside the emperor. At this the Greeks 
were horrified, and the Crusaders laughed. Some of the 
more prudent Franks remonstrated, one of them saying, 
as he pulled Count Robert by the arm, " When you are 



107 

ill a foreign country, you should observe its customs." 
''Truly," exclaimed Robert, glancing mockingly toward 
Alexis, "but this is a pleasant clown, who is seated, 
while so many noble captains are standing." The em- 
peror was obliged to overlook the insult, and when the 
ceremony was over he attempted to engage the stubborn 
Crusader in pleasant conversation. " What is your birth 
and which is your country?" said he, with a mild ac- 
cent, to the surly Robert. " I am a Frenchman," said 
the Frank, "and of the highest rank of nobles. And 
one thing I know, that in my country there is a place 
near a church where those repair who are eager to attest 
their valor. I have often been there myself, and no one 
has ventured to present himself before me." The hint 
of a challenge was lost on the mild mannered Alexis, who 
had as little notion of hazarding his person as of resign- 
ing his throne. 

Soon after this event Bohemond and Tancred, with 
thirty thousand men, joined the Crusaders. Bohemond, 
a native of Italy, but Norman to the backbone, was 
brave, accomplished, but utterly unscrupulous. He 
fought with courage, spoke with eloquence, but without 
regard either to conscience or God. Tarentum was far 
too small a place for so ambitious a spirit, and it was 
with enthusiasm that he joined the Franks at Constanti- 
nople. He recommended to Godfrey the seizure of the 
Empire of the East, but Godfrey reminded him that they 
were soldiers of the cross going to deliver Jerusalem, 
and that their duty as Christians was not to attack the 
Greeks but to vanquish the pagans. It was with the 
iireatest dread that Alexis heard of the arrival of Bohe- 



108 

mond^ but by cunning and bribery he succeeded in win- 
ning from him also a promise of homage. 

Tlie entire year of 1096 was consumed in the gather- 
ing together of the armies before the walls of Constanti- 
nople. At length, in May of '97, to the extreme satis- 
faction of Alexis, the crusading army of a hundred 
thousand mounted knights and five hundred thousand 
footmen crossed into Asia Minor. "At the head rode 
the austere Godfrey, the white-haired Raymond of Tou- 
louse, and Peter the Hermit, mounted on a mule. Priest, 
matron and maid still journeyed by the side of young 
warriors, who carried white hawks on their wrists and 
whistled to hounds." 

Sieg'e of Nice. — Soon they reached the city of Nice in 
Bithynia. The sultan had placed his wife, his children, 
and his treasures within the walls, confident in the strong 
fortifications, while he encamped with the Turkish army 
on the neighboring mountains. Here lay a powerful 
city, surrounded by strong walls, protected by hundreds 
of towers ; a ditch broad and deep enclosed the fortifica- 
tions, and a lake washed its foundations, and communi- 
cated with the sea. 

The Crusaders commenced the siege with zeal and 
courage, flinging themselves against the walls of the city 
in an impetuous assault. Seeing that they were not suc- 
cessful, the sultan and his army charged down from the 
mountain sides. Such was the fury of the attack, that 
the soldiers under Raymond of Toulouse, who were sta- 
tioned so as to bear the brunt of the battle, were thrown 
into some disorder, but were quickly rallied by their 
brave leader. Robert Short Hose and Robert of Fland- 



100 

ers, hastening to the rescue, soon compelled the sultan 
to sound his bugles for retreat. Now the Crusaders com- 
menced a systematic siege of the city. A Lombard en- 
gineer skillfully constructed the war machines, necessary 
in the Middle Ages in conducting the siege of fortified 
cities. With the aid of these, they battered the ramparts, 
hurled masses of stone and blocks of wood with a crash 
into the city, fought the besieged in a hand-to-hand fight 
from the summits of high towers wheeled up to the ram- 
parts. 

Meanwhile the Saracens were likewise defiantly hurl- 
ing darts, stones, blocks of wood, and boiling tar upon 
the heads of their assailants. One gigantic Saracen was 
conspicuous during the siege, hurling darts, arrows and 
stones with unerring aim. He grew so bold as to stand 
upright on the walls and challenge the Crusaders. Hun- 
dreds of arrows were immediately directed toward him, 
but without avail, for he seemed to bear a charmed life. 
At length Godfrey of Bouillon seized a cross-bow, took 
aim, and the next moment the boastful Saracen fell, 
pierced through the heart. 

After the siege had been carried on for several weeks, 
it became evident that the city could never be taken, 
while the besieged received supplies across the lake. 
Accordingly, in the dead of night, the Crusaders suc- 
ceeded in launching their boats on the lake and captured 
the wife and children of the sultan as they were attempt- 
ing to escape. The next morning the besieged, with 
dismay, discovered that their foes had captured the 
lake, and that the family of the sultan had been taken 
prisoners. 



110 

Now the Crusaders expected an easy conquest, but the 
crafty Alexis had planned otherwise. Pretending to ac- 
company the Crusaders as an ally, he had adroitly dis- 
patched messengers to the Saracens persuading them that 
it would be greatly to their advantage to surrender to 
him, rather than to place themselves at the mercy of the 
Franks. Just as they were preparing a final assault, 
what was their astonishment to see the standard of the 
Greek emperor displayed from turret and tower. Morti- 
fied and angered at this double dealing, they could only 
smother their wrath as Alexis attempted to pacify them 
by praising their valor and distributing valuable gifts. 
As soon as possible they took up their march toward Je- 
rusalem, feeling the greatest hatred and contempt for the 
monarch to whom they had paid homage. 

Journey Continued. — Tlie army marched in two divis- 
ions that they might better procure provisions in the 
country through which they passed. The larger of these 
was headed by Godfrey of Bouillon, Raymond of Tou- 
louse, and the Counts of Vermandois and Flanders. The 
other, composed mostly of Normans, was led by Bohemond 
of Tarentum, Tancred, and Robert Short Hose. 

Valley of Dogorgan. — The division under Bohemond 
followed the margin of a river into th lley of Dogor- 
gan, where they found a tempting p.ace to encamp. 
Here was a beautiful stream of water, plenty of pasture, 
and, near by, an abundance of timber. Bohemond 
called a halt, the heralds, according to custom, shouted 
three time, "God save the Holy Sepulcher!" the Crusad- 
ers pitched their tents, tethered their horses, partook of 
what refreshments they had, and, as darkness over- 



Ill 

shadowed the valley, took their needed repose. The 
night passed away in peace, hut, by break of day, news 
was brought into the camp by the Greeks that the sultan 
with a powerful army was right upon them. Springing 
upon their feet they perceived a cloud of dust in the dis- 
tance, which announced without doubt the coming of 
the foe. 

Bohemond with skill and coolness fortified the camp 
with wagons and palisades, placing the women, children, 
and wounded in the center and a guard of soldiers around 
it. The cavalry he sent forward under Tancred and 
Robert Short Hose to dispute the passage of the river, 
while he with a few followers mounted some rising 
ground that he might watch the progress of the battle 
and issue suitable orders. These preparations were none 
too soon, for the Moslem host in their white turbans, 
green vests, and armed with long spears, approached, 
blowing their horns, beating drums, and filling the air 
with their fearful yells. At the same time they dis- 
charged volleys of arrows and darts wpon the Crusaders. 
These missiles rattled off the linked mail of the knights, 
doing no injury, but the spirited horses, stung by the 
javelins and unused to the drums and yells of the Sara- 
cens, grew restive, plunged and reared until their riders 
were in danger of being unhorsed. The knights, ren- 
dered desperate by the showers of arrows and the fierce 
glare of the sun, plunged into the stream and rushed 
upon their assailants, thinking to come to a hand-to- 
hand fight. 

But the Saracens had no such intention. They opened 
their ranks to the Christian warriors, retreated to a safe 



112 

distance, charged again with all the speed of their Arab 
horses, let fly a shower of arrows, and again sped out of 
reach. 

The Crusaders were thrown into disorder by this un- 
usual warfare. Saddle after saddle was emptied, and 
horses, without riders, running hither and thither, in- 
creased the confusion. In vain Tancred and Count 
Robert of Paris threw themselves into the melee. Count 
Robert fell mortally wounded, after seeing forty of his 
followers killed. Tancred was about to be overpowered, 
when Bohemond rushed to the rescue and bore his nephew 
off to a place of safety. 

Meanwhile, the sultan and a body of choice horsemen 
descended upon the camp, scattering the guard and bring- 
ing terror to the hearts of the women and children and 
priests. Curthose, who had prudently refrained from 
crossing the river, bore down upon them, sounding his 
war-cry of " God wills it ! " and followed by a host of 
knights, he cut down the principal Saracens with his 
sword. Bohemond, hearing of the peril to the camp, 
charged to the rescue with such force that the Saracens 
were soon expelled. 

Notwithstanding the success of this onset and the valor 
inspired by the courage of Curthose and Bohemond, the 
prospect was most alarming. The Crusaders, driven 
back upon the camp, were but a handful compared with 
the overwhelming numbers of the Saracen host. The 
remaining warriors, almost prostrated by the intense heat, 
suffocated by the dust, and parched with thirst, were unfit 
for further conflict ; the horses, tired, wounded, and 
bleeding, were too weak to carry their riders. 



113 

In despair, the Crusaders gave up all hope of seeing 
Jerusalem. Bohemond alone tried to keep up their cour- 
age, with the hope that Godfrey's division would come 
to their rescue. His words had very little effect; women 
bewailed their fate, priests implored divine aid, and sol- 
diers, on their knees, entreated the priests to grant them 
absolution. 

Suddenly a joyful shout rang through the camp, as the 
shrill bugles of Godfrey were heard in the distance, and 
fifty thousand sabers flashed in the sunlight on the summit 
of the hills behind the camp. The sultan now thought 
it prudent to retire to the opposite mountains, apparently 
not anticipating pursuit. In this he was mistaken. As 
soon as Godfrey arrived he formed his men in line of 
battle, ready for the assault. Priests passed along the 
lines, exhorting them to remember the Holy Sepulcher, 
and bestowing upon all the blessing of the church. When 
the command of " Forward ! " was given, every man ad- 
vanced with the cry of " God wills it ! " 

The soldiers of Raymond of Toulouse were the first to 
meet the foe, and such was the impetuosity of their at- 
tack that the Saracen line was broken. Meanwhile they 
found themselves attacked on one flank by Bohemond 
and Curthose ; on the other by Godfrey and the Count 
of Flanders. Now all was disorder, and, to complete 
the rout, the Bishop of Puy, who had charge of the re- 
serve, appeared from behind a hill and attacked their 
rear. So surrounded were the Saracens, that they could 
scarcely hope to escape ; but, moved by desperation, some 
fought their way out through woods and over rocks. 
Med. His.— 8 



114 

Thousands of turbaned Moslems fell on the mountain 
sides ; and the sultan, seeing all was lost, fled from the 
scene of action, though continuing to aflirm that he had 
won the victory. 

The successful Crusaders now proceeded to the camp 
of the enemy, where they found a rich booty to reward 
their valor. Here, indeed, were the treasures of the East: 
a bountiful supply of provisions; jewels which the enemy, 
in their haste, had abandoned; camels, with which the 
Western warriors were wholly unacquainted; and tents, 
the magnificence of which excited their admiration. 

In triumph they returned to their own camp laden 
with booty, the priests marching before, singing hymns of 
praise, the camels and horses which had been their prey 
bringing up the rear. 

But the joy was not unalloyed, for many were mourn- 
ing the loss of brothers and kinsmen. As many as four 
thousand Christians had perished in that morning's 
struggle. It was the general belief, however, that the 
souls of those who fell with arms in their hands and the 
cross on their shoulders were purified from all sin and their 
names at once enrolled in the army of martyrs. 

The Desert. — The army now moved forward in a body 
toward Antioch, but soon encountered new difficulties. 
The sultan, to gratify his desire for revenge, had laid 
waste the country, so that it was a barren desert, offer- 
ins no food for men and no fodder for horses. Subsist- 
ing on roots and stray ears of corn, the utmost distress 
prevailed. Hawks drooped and died, hounds ran off in 
search of food, delicate women and robust warriors fell 
by the way. Finally the scarcity of water was added to 



115 

famine. No spring uor stream nor pond could be found 
to slake their burning thirst. At length, when the 
whole host seemed about to perish, the hounds came 
into the camp with wet skins and paws covered with 
sand. Following their footprints the Crusaders found a 
river. The pilgrims rushed to it in a mass, and such 
was their frenzy that they threw themselves into the 
water and drank to excess, so that hundreds died on the 
banks and others became too sick to continue the jour- 
ney. In the midst of this suffering the cry of "On to 
Jerusalem!" resounded through the camp, and the toil- 
some march was renewed. About the middle of October 
the half-starved pilgrims entered a mountain pass, which 
led them into a region of plenty. On every side were 
towns and fields, which furnished supplies in abund- 
ance. The strength of the Crusaders revived and they 
pressed on to the city of Antioch, which rose to their 
vision. — Adapted from Edgar. 

Antioch. — "Antioch was known as the 'Queen of the 
East,' and seemed not unworthy of the name. A beauti- 
ful situation, a lofty castle, magnificent edifices, and 
strong walls, fortified by four hundred and sixty towers, 
gave a dignified and picturesque aspect to the city. On 
the north rose one mountain covered with houses and 
gardens; on the south another mountain celebrated for 
its forests and springs. The suburbs, which boasted of 
the fountain of Daphne, were fair to look upon; the ram- 
parts were washed by the river Orontes, which com- 
municated with a lake abounding in fish, and, at a few 
miles' distance, flowed into the sea. The city itself 
could not fail to be of interest to the Crusaders; but bet- 



116 

ter than the natural beauty and opulence were the hal- 
lowed associations of Antioch. Here the followers of 
Christ had first taken the name of Christians. Here 
St. Peter was made first bishop of the chureli. Here 
the early saints and martyrs had performed their mir- 
acles, and given to the city a sanctity second only to 
that of Jerusalem. "7— ^df/ar. 

While the main body of the Christian army had been 
moving toward Antioch, several successes had been ob- 
tained by the other divisions. Tancred and Baldwin of 
Bouillon had captured Tarsus. Tancred also seized Al- 
exandretta, while Baldwin made himself master of Edessa 
on the Euphrates, and, by marriage with an Armenian 
princess, obtained possession of the richest provinces of 
ancient Assyria. The principal cities of Asia Minor had 
already come under the dominion of the cross, so it was 
with a most confident spirit that the assembled armies 
stationed themselves before Antioch. 

Siege of Antioch. — They must first capture the bridge 
across the rentes. Though it was defended by iron 
towers, with Curthose leading the van, every obstacle 
gave way, and the defenders of the bridge were driven 
within the walls of the city. As they approached the 
ramparts, strangel}^ enough no foes presented them- 
selves. Judging from this that it would be an easy task 
to vanquish an enemy so cowardly, they decided "to 
eat, drink, and be merry." Then it was that the Chris- 
tian army brought disgrace upon itself. No town nor 
village nor orchard was safe from their depredations. 
The soldiers and many of the bishops abandoned them- 
selves to pleasure. While off their guard many of their 



117 

number were cut off by a sally from the city. The Cru- 
saders, roused to fury, made a hopeless attack on the 
walls, for they possessed no scaling ladders nor machines. 

Finding action a necessity, they now set to work in 
earnest to besiege the city ; but now the consequences of 
their imprudence came upon them. Although winter 
was coming on, no supplies had been laid by. Curthose 
and Bohemond scoured the neighborhood and brought 
back but little; famine stared them in the face, terrible 
rainstorms flooded the camp, and gusts of wind destroyed 
their tents ; their clothing was in rags, and many were 
prostrated with fever. Such was their despair that some 
abandoned the camp and started out secretly for home. 
Among these were Peter the Hermit and Robert Short 
Hose. Peter was brought back by force, and Curthose 
returned, when summoned by Godfrey in the name of 
Christ. 

Ships with supplies having arrived off the coast, the 
soldiers, almost unarmed, rushed off to purchase provis- 
ions. When returning they were attacked by the Sara- 
cens. Godfrey, Curthose, and Tancred came to the res- 
cue ; but at this point a large body of Saracens sallied 
out from the gates of the city, followed to the bridge by 
the Prince of Antioch, who assured them that the gates 
would only be opened to them as victors. The Moslem 
warriors soon discovered their own inferiority in a hand- 
to-hand combat with the Crusaders, and made attempts 
to regain the city ; but Godfrey had no idea of letting 
them escape so easily. A sanguinary battle was. then 
fought, continuing till dark, before the prince would 
open the gates to admit the fugitives. 



118 

After this, the Saracens regarded the Crusaders with 
awe; but winter passed, and the month of May, 1098, 
drew to a close without any prospect of a surrender. At 
last the prospect of seizing the city by strategem was 
offered . 

One of the chief commanders in the defense of the city 
was an Armenian renegade, who thought to advance his 
fortunes by surrendering the cit}-. Making his resolu- 
tion known to Bohemond of Tarentum, that knight, 
thinking to advance his own interests, eagerly favored 
the enterprise. 

At a council of the Christian princes, he offered to 
have the gates of the city thrown open, hinting that his 
reward might be the sovereignty of the city. The chiefs 
at first disdainfully refused to countenance such a cow- 
ardly project, but news having arrived that the sultans 
of Nice and Mossoul were marching at the head of four 
hundred thousand Moslems to the relief of Antioch, 
caused the princes to put aside their scruples and agree 
that Bohemond should be prince of Antioch, if he would 
take possession of the city. During a stormy night, when 
the noise of the wind and rain deafened the sentinels, 
Bohemond, followed by the other Crusaders, scaled the 
walls of Antioch, by means of rope ladders, which were 
let down to them, and threw themselves on the city, cry- 
ing, ''God wills it! " 

The Crusaders, reduced to half their original numbers, 
underwent the same sufferings inside the city that they 
had to bear outside the walls, for they were besieged by 
two hundred thousand Turks from Bagdad. Godfrey 
had his last war horse killed, and despair had settled 



119 

down upon them, when a priest announced to the leaders 
of the army that Saint Andrew had revealed to him in 
his sleep that the spear which pierced the side of Christ 
was under the high altar of the church, and that the 
possession of this would give a victory to the Christians. 
They dug under the altar, found the spear ; and the Cru- 
saders, filled with enthusiasm, marched against the Turk- 
ish army and cut it into pieces. 

Journey Continued. — Instead of starting at once for 
Jerusalem, they stayed six months longer at Antioch, 
where great numhers died of the plague. When they 
finally left the city, of the six hundred thousand who had 
started, only fifty thousand were left; though it is true 
that a number of them had settled down in the various 
cities through which the crusade had passed. Besides, 
some of them, like the Count of Blois and tlie Count of 
Vermandois, returned to Europe. The Crusaders followed 
along the coast of the Mediterranean, in order to keep in 
communication with the fleets from Genoa and Pisa, 
which brought them supplies. In addition to this, as 
they were passing through the rich valleys of the Leb- 
anon range, they recovered from their suffering and re- 
gained their strength. The enthusiasm grew as they 
approached the Holy City and began to traverse places 
hallowed by the narratives of the Gospels. — Adapted from 
Edgar. 

First View of JeruStalem. — "On the morning of the 
29th of May, 1099, they ascended the heights of Emmaus 
and at dawn came in sight of the Holy City. 

" 'Jerusalem! Jerusalem!' shouted all the pilgrims, as 



120 

they uncovered their heads and rushed forward in 
ecstasy. 

"Lines of walls, groups of massive towers, and a few 
olive trees rising from the sterile plain were all that met 
the thousands of arrested eyes; hut the sight was enough. 
A thrilling and suhlime emotion pervaded the army of 
Crusaders as they gazed on the city they had so earnestly 
longed to behold; and a voice seemed to sound in the 
ear of each, saying: 'Put thy shoes from off thy feet, 
for the place whereon thou standest is holy.' The horse- 
men sprung from their saddles. Some prostrated them- 
selves and kissed the earth; others walked forward bare- 
foot, and all, shedding penitential tears, renewed the 
vow they had made before leaving Europe." — Edgar. 
(Song, "Jerusalem the Golden.") 

Siege of Jerusalem. — Urged by the eloquence of a her- 
mit living on Mt. Olivet, they resolved to make an im- 
mediate assault and trust for victory to the aid of Heaven. 
Accordingly, witliout machines of war and scarcely a 
scaling ladder, they advanced and assailed the walls 
with hammers and pikes; others, ranged at a distance, 
annoyed the defenders of the city with slings and bows. 

"But the Emir of Jerusalem, whose garrison num- 
bered forty thousand men, was in no yielding mood. 
Machines placed upon the ramparts discharged every 
species of missile; and blocks of stone, beams of wood, 
burning torches, boiling pitch, and Greek fire wrought 
fearful havoc. Still the Crusaders persevered, and the 
outer wall fell before their impetuous efforts. The inner 
wall, however, proved such an impassable barrier, that 



121 

the Crusaders abandoned the siege until they could pros- 
ecute it in a more regular fashion. 

"To their great distress, they found that the Saracens 
had scoured the neighborhood and taken everything in 
the shape of provender into the city, and cut off the sup- 
ply of water by choking up the wells and poisoning the 
cisterns. The fountain of Shiloh, only flowing at inter- 
vals, could not suffice for fifty thousand people, and 
most of the water had to be carried in skins from foun- 
tains or rivulets many miles off. Encamped on arid 
plains and under a burning sun, everybody experienced 
more or less misery; and, as days passed, men, women, 
and children gave way to despair. There is only one 
remedy for this state of things,' said the pilgrim princes 
— 'Jerusalem must be taken.' 

"At length, obtaining some provisions and tools from a 
Genoese fleet that had arrived at Joppa, and some lum- 
ber from forests thirty miles distant, they constructed 
war machines. On the 15th of July, 1099, a general 
assault was made at early dawn, and three great rolling 
towers were pushed up against the walls of the city. The 
onset was impetuous and the shock terrible, for the re- 
sistance was as obstinate as the assault was enthusiastic. 
The engines constructed by the Genoese proved very de- 
structive, but the besieged cased the outside of their 
walls with bags of chaff, straw, and such pliable matter, 
which conquered the engines of the Christians by yield- 
ing to them. At length the Greek fire of the Saracens, 
by setting their machines on fire, reduced the Christians 
to despondency. "At the moment, however, when the 
Crusaders, fatigued with the weight of their armor, cov- 



122 

ered with dust and oppressed witli beat, leaned on their 
swords and gave way to despair, a horseman, waving a 
buckler, appeared on Mt. Olivet. 

" ' Behold,' cried Godfrey, ' St. George has come again 
to our aid, and makes a signal for us to enter the Holy 
City.' 

" ' God wills it ! ' cried the Crusaders, as they returned 
with one accord to the assault." — Edgar. 

Entrance into Jerusalem. — Pious frenzy now rendered 
the armed pilgrims irresistible. Amid clouds of flame 
and smoke and dust, Godfrey forced an entry into the 
city, and Eustace of Bouillon, with a host of warriors, 
followed with shouts of victory. Curthose and the Count 
of Flanders redoubled every effort, and scaled the walls 
sword in hand. Raymond of Toulouse, opposed by the 
Emir in person, leaping from his wooden towers to the 
ramparts, caused the Saracens and their leader to fly be- 
fore the sweep of his sword. 

"Jerusalem now resounded with loud cries of ven- 
geance. The conquerors, under a delusion that they 
were rendering God service, slaughtered without mercy 
the enemies of their religion. Thousands upon thou- 
sands of the vanquished fell, and for days the blood of 
Saracens, old and young, flowed like water. 

"While swords were clashing and blood was flowing, 
Godfrey of Bouillon, leaving the scene of carnage, lay- 
ing down his sword, uncovering his head and baring his 
feet, walked in a posture of humility to the Church of 
the Resurrection and prostrated himself on the tomb of 
Christ. On hearing of the pious chief's act of devotion, 
the Crusaders hastened to follow his example, and, pre- 



123 

ceded by the clergy, walked in solemn procession, sing- 
ing penitential psalms and songs of thanksgiving. 

" Ere this ceremony was over, the Christians in Jeru- 
salem emerged from places of concealment and advanced 
to meet their deliverers. The spectacle touched every 
heart and brought tears to every eye ; but, from among 
princes and peers, they singled out the figure of the lit- 
tle man clad in the woolen mantle who, five years before, 
liad walked wildly about the Holy City busying his brain 
with projects for their relief. It was Peter the Hermit, 
whom they regarded as their liberator, and crowding 
around him they expressed boundless astonishment that 
one man should have been able to rouse so many nations 
and to work so mighty a deliverance." — Edgar. 

Godfrey Made Kino;. — The Crusaders lost no time in 
organizing their new conquest. Godfrey was unan- 
imously elected King of Jerusalem, but he would only 
accept the title of Defender and Baron of the Holy Se- 
pulcher, refusing to wear a crown of gold where the 
Savior of mankind wore a crown of thorns. 

"Immediately after the election of Godfrey, the pil- 
grim princes attended him in triumph to the Church of 
the Holy Sepulcher, and the warriors there took an oath 
to rule according to the laws of honor and justice. 
Scarely, however, was the ceremony over, when startling 
intelligence reached Jerusalem. It appeared that a 
mighty army, under the command of the most renowned 
of Moslem warriors, had arrived at Ascalon, bent on giv- 
ing the Crusaders battle." — Edgar. (See account of bat- 
tle, pages 109, 110, 111, Edgar, and page 696, Ridpath.) 

Return to Europe. — "After the victory of Ascalon, 



124 

almost all the nobles were in haste to return to their own 
firesides; and, with Godfrey and Tancred, hardly more 
than 300 knights remained in Jerusalem. [Page 112, 
Edgar.] The ones who remained, with tears in their 
eyes, begged those who departed never to forget them, 
saying : 'Do not forget your brothers whom you leave in 
exile. When you go back to Europe, arouse in all 
Christians the desire to visit the holy places which we 
have delivered, and exhort the warriors to come and 
fight the infidel nations. ' But the enthusiasm of Europe 
was chilled when so few returned from the enormous 
number that started, and fifty years elapsed before an- 
other crusade of any importance was undertaken to re- 
lieve the kingdom founded at Jerusalem." — Durny. 

Godfrey's Government. — But the valiant Godfrey did 
not live long to enjoy the fruits of his toil and warfare. 
He faithfully discharged his duty as Baron of the Holy 
Sepulcher, by giving regular institutions to the country 
and people he liad conquered. Tancred was sent into 
Galilee, where he captured tlie town of Tiberias. The 
whole province was added to Godfrey's dominions. 
When Tancred was attacked b}' the Saracen army from 
Damascus, Godfrey went to his assistance, and, after de- 
feating the Moslems, returned b}'' way of Ca^sarea. The 
Emir of that district met him in a friendly way and 
made him a seemingly courteous offer of fruit. God- 
frey, unsuspicious of treachery, ate an apple, and im- 
mediately sickened and died on the 18th of July, 1100. 
His remains were laid to rest, according to his wish, on 
tlie slope of Calvary, not far from the Holy Sepulcher. 
All Christendom heard of the sad event with sorrow. 



125 

Baldwin I., King of Jerusalem. — Baldwin of Bouillon, 
making over his province of Edessa to his kinsman, 
Baldwin du Bourg, became king of Jerusalem. During 
his reign and that of his successor, Baldwin du Bourg, 
the Christian possessions were Avell defended and in- 
creased in extent ; but after these kings the decline of 
the kingdom began. "The Turks of Mosul and 
Damascus took Edessa and massacred the inhabitants 
(1147). This bloody disaster, which left Palestine un- 
protected, impelled Europe to renew the crusade." — Du- 
rny. 

THE SECOND CRUSADE (1147). 

Preaching" by St. Bernard. — St. Bernard of France 
now preached a new crusade, producing an impression 
hardly less marvelous than Peter the Hermit had done 
half a century earlier. Among the immense concourse 
who listened to him were King Louis VII. of France and 
his wife, Queen Eleanor, surrounded by peers and prel- 
ates. While the hill-side was ringing with enthusiastic 
shouts of " God wills it ! " Louis, throwing himself upon 
his knees, received the cross, and Eleanor immediately 
followed her husband's example. Such was then the 
demand from peasants, nobles, and bishops, that St. Ber- 
nard, finding the crosses for the occasion were insuffi- 
cient, tore up his vestments to supply the demand. 

By entering this crusade, Louis hoped to atone for the 
great sin of his life, which had so filled him with re- 
morse that, for some time afterward, he had scarcely 
courage enough to look upon the light of day. When 
Louis had first taken up the reins of government he was 
obliged to lay siege to the insubordinate city of Vitey. 



126 

The inhabitants took refuge in a church. Louis caused 
it to be set on fire, and thus destroyed thirteen hundred 
people. The king was still brooding over this crime 
when news of the fall of Edessa reached France, and St. 
Bernard was commissioned by the pope to preach a new 
crusade. 

Journey to the Holy Land. — After preaching through- 
out France, St. Bernard repaired to Germany. There 
he met with equal success, and Conrad the Third raised 
an army to accompany Louis. 

In the spring of 1147 all Europe was stirring. Shep- 
herds flung down their hooks, husbandmen abandoned 
their teams, traders quitted their booths, barons left 
their castles, bishops deserted their bishoprics to arm 
for the defense of the Holy Sepulcher. Queen Eleanor 
accompanied Louis, leading a body of women clad in 
knightly array. Conrad's army was followed by a simi- 
lar band. Eleanor was attended by the troubadours of 
her court, that they might enliven the tedium of the ex- 
pedition. (Read "Lay of Last Minstrel," by Scott; 
poetry and songs of troubadours and minstrels.) 

Conrad's forces reached Constantinople first, but, per- 
ceiving the treacherous character of Emanuel, the grand- 
son of Alexis, they continued their journey without 
waiting for the French. The perfidy of the Greeks now 
became manifest. Every city was fortified; every gate 
was closed. Provisions must be bought from the Greeks. 
The Greek guides kept the Saracens informed in regard 
to the Germans' line of march, and ambuscades awaited 
them at every defile. In the Taurus Mountains they 
were attacked by a Moslem army, who swept down upon 



127 

them from the heights. Reduced to a tenth of their 
original number, they contrived to find their way back 
to Constantinople. 

Louis's army met with like misfortunes, but a portion 
of it reached Antioch by embarking on vessels at Attalia. 
The French king and queen were warmly welcomed at 
Antioch, which was then under the government of Ray- 
mond of Poictiers, who had married the granddaughter 
of Bohemond of Tarentum. In this gay and brilliant 
court the Crusaders soon forgot the hardships they had 
endured and the comrades they had abandoned. 

At length King Louis and Queen Eleanor, tearing 
themselves away from the pleasures of the court of An- 
tioch, repaired to Jerusalem, whither Conrad had al- 
ready gone in the guise of a pilgrim. Princes, prelates, 
and people sallied forth from the gates to meet him, and 
his arrival was hailed with loud shouts of " Blessed is 
he that cometh in the name of the Lord." 

Attack on Damascus. — Baldwin the Third convoked a 
council at Acre to deliberate on the affairs of the king- 
dom. The assembly resolved to besiege Damascus. In 
June, 1149, a Christian army commanded by Conrad, 
the Emperor of Germany, and King Louis of France, 
marched to Damascus, and, taking possession of the 
gardens and orchards outside the city, commenced the 
siege. At first they carried all before them, but, when 
success seemed about to crown their efforts, a dispute 
arose between the Crusaders and the Syrian barons as to 
the possession of the city. 

This discord finally caused them to abandon the en- 
terprise in despair. Conrad and Louis were now both 



128 

anxious to leave the East. The King of France, em- 
barking at Acre, reached his capital in the autumn, with 
a mere fragment of his brilliant army. From this time 
Louis appeared more like a monk than a monarch, and 
Eleanor, indignant at tlie weakness he displayed, had 
her marriage dissolved. The divorced queen, still pos- 
sessing the magnificent province of Aquitaine, had 
numerous suitors, one of whom was Henry Plantagenet 
of Normandy, an accomplished, handsome young man, 
heir to the throne of England. Eleanor married Henry, 
who soon became Henry II. of England. As queen of 
England she caused her husband much trouble by excit- 
ing her sons, Henry and Richard, to rebel against their 
father. — Adapted from Edgar. 

THE THIRD CRUSADE. 

The Three Leaders. — ''The Third Crusade was caused 
by the capture of Jerusalem (1187) by Saladin, the Sul- 
tan of Egypt. Three of the great sovereigns of Europe, 
Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of 
France, and Richard I. of England, assumed the cross 
and set out, each at the head of a large army, for the re- 
covery of the Holy City." — flyers. 

Frederick Barbarossa was a grand-looking man, with 
fair hair and blue eyes, and a tinge of red in liis beard, 
wliich made the Italians call him Barbarossa. He was 
unanimously chosen king by the German nobles and re- 
ceived his crown at Aix-la-Chapelle. Having established 
order in his own kingdom by punishing the robber- 
knights, and controlling the power of the dukes, he 
crossed the Alps into Italy, according to the custom of 



129 

German kaisars, to assert his rights there. It was a 
time of rival popes, and he entered into the controversy. 
The Italian cities, grown rich and powerful during the 
first crusades, appealed to him to settle their difficulties. 
He decided to punish the Milanese for their treatment of 
a rival city, by levelling their own city of Milan to the 
ground. All the neighboring cities, who were filled 
with deadly hatred toward this town, were allowed to 
exercise their vengeance upon it, and it was totally de- 
stroyed (1162). "The sacred relics in the churches were 
sent to enrich the churches of Germany. Among these 
were the reputed bodies of the Three Wise Men of the East, 
which were sent to Cologne, and are still exhibited there 
in the noted cathedral amid heaps of jewels.". (See 
"Zigzag Journey of Northern Lands.") 

When marching to Rome in midsummer, a terrible 
pestilence broke out in his arm}^ compeling him to 
retreat with great loss to Germany. His rule in his 
own country was wise and vigorous. He founded Mu- 
nich and several other great towns; but in the meantime 
the Italian cities had united with the pope against him, 
in what was called the Lombard League. Frederick 
crossed the mountains to put down this uprising, but 
the Lombards were stronger than he had expected, and 
in the midst of the struggle, at his greatest need, his 
vassal, the Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, refused his 
help, probably because he disliked fighting against the 
church. The Italians gained a complete victory. Fred- 
erick's horse was slain under him, and he was thought 
to be killed. 

Med. His.— 9 



130 

Frederick was forced to make peace (117G) and pay 
homage to the pope. The ceremony took place in St. 
Mark's Cathedral, Venice, at the door of which Alexan- 
der, the pope, awaited him with all the clergy. There 
the kaisar knelt to kiss the pope's slipper, and granted 
the freedom of the Italian cities. Frederick then re- 
tired to Germany, where he was all-powerful, and passed 
the evening of his life in peace and contentment. 

On his return a great peace festival was held at Mentz, 
to which came forty thousand knights. ''A camp of 
tents of silk and gold was set up by the Rhine, and mu- 
sicians, called minne-singers, delighted the lords and 
ladies with songs of heroes and knights. The songs 
and ballads then sung became famous, and this festival 
may be said to be the beginning of musical art in music- 
loving Germany. 

"Europe was now startled with the news that the 
Saracens, under Saladin, had taken Jerusalem. Barba- 
rossa was about inaugurating a new war with the pope ; 
but when this news came he and the pope became rec- 
onciled, and he resolved to go on a crusade. 

''He was an old man now, but he entered into the 
crusade with the fiery spirit of youth. His war-cry was, 
* Christ reigns ! Christ conquers! ' " Passing through 
Constantinople, he marched through Asia Minor, where 
he lost the flower of his army for want of food and 
water. He fought his way through every obstacle, and 
came without disaster to Iconium, where he gained a 
glorious victory over the sultan. Soon afterwards 
Barbarossa met his death in attempting to cross a 
swollen stream. "He was seventy years old when he 



131 

was tkus lost in the year 1190. His body was found 
and buried at Antioch." 

The Germans could not believe their mighty kaisar 
was dead, but said that he had fallen a victim to en- 
chantment. In the Kyffhauser cave, in Thuringia, he 
and his knights were thought to be sitting asleep around 
a stone table, his once red, but now white, beard grow- 
ing through the stone. "They also said that the spell 
that bound Barbarossa and his knights would some day 
be broken, and tliat they would come back to Germany. 
This would occur when the country should be in sore 
distress, and need a champion for its cause. 

"Ravens flew continually about the cave where the 
monarcli and liis knights were held enchanted. When 
they should cease to circle about it, the spell would be 
broken, and the grand old monarch would return to the 
Rhine. 

"■ They looked* for him in days of calamity ; but centur- 
ies passed, and he did not return." — Adapted from 3Iiss 
Yonge and Bufterivorfh. 

Richard the Lion Hearted (1189 to 1199).— "King 
Richard of England, surnamed Cceur de Leon, on ac- 
count of his undaunted courage, is one of the favorite 
heroes of romance. He was tall and his figure extremely 
fine ; he had a majestic and stately mien, and this, joined 
to his great courage and quickness of intellect, gave 
him on all occasions an ascendency over men's minds. 
But, though he possessed so many good qualities, he 
was hot-headed and without judgment. 

" At his father's death in 1189, he expressed an agony 
of remorse for his undutiful conduct. One of the first 



132 

acts of his reign was to release his mother from tlie long 
imprisonment enforced hy King Henry. 

"Being desirous of acquiring glory, Richard resolved 
to go on a crusade, for news had arrived that the Sar- 
acens had taken Jerusalem. [Saladin the Great ; Fred- 
erick Barbarossa — See Edgar's "Crusades and Crusad- 
ers;" "Zigzag Journeys in Northern Lands."] Ilis 
father had left him a large sum, of money, but not 
enough for this purpose ; so, in order to increase it, he 
sold the royal castle and estates, and also put to sale the 
offices of the greatest trust and power. 

" When some of his ministers remonstrated with him 
on these proceedings, he said he would sell London itself, 
if he could find a purchaser. For a large sum of money, 
he absolved the King of Scotland from his vassalage to 
the King of England. 

RicJiard and Philip at Sicily. — "At last his armament 
was ready, and Richard reached Messina, in Sicily, 
September, 1190. Here he was joined by Philip, King 
of France, and, as it was late in the season, they agreed 
to pass the winter in Sicily. 

" There could scarcely be found two persons less alike 
in character than these two kings. Richard, though 
proud and domineering, was brave and generous. Philip 
was proud, but shy and deceitful. It is not surprising 
that two such opposite characters should quarrel before 
their six months' residence in Sicily was over. The 
cause of this disagreement was that Richard wished to 
break off his engagement with Philip's sister, to whom 
he had been betrothed in infancy, that he might marry 
Princess Berengaria of Navarre. 



133 

Richard^ s Marriage. — "Early in 1191, he prevailed 
upon his mother to bring the Princess Berengaria to 
Messina. They arrived the day before he had planned 
to sail for the Holy Land ; but, as it was Lent, the mar- 
riage could not then be celebrated. Too enthusiastic to 
delay his enterprise for his wedding, he embarked in one 
galley and the princess, accompanied by the Queen of 
Sicily, Richard's sister, embarked in another for Acre. 
A violent storm arose, and the ship the two princesses 
were in, was in great danger. The King of Cyprus, 
however, refused to admit the vessel into his harbors, 
upon which Richard with his fleet laid siege to the 
island, and, soon taking possession of it, placed the 
king in silver chains. Richard remained on the island 
long enough to solemnize his marriage ; then, leaving 
a governor to rale the island, he sailed for Acre. Here 
he found the King of France, who had left Sicily some 
time before, and was now awaiting his arrival before 
attacking Acre. Richard and his squadron of fifty war- 
galleys, thirteen store-ships, and more than a hundred 
transports were received with great enthusiasm. — Good- 
rich. 

Description of Acre. — " Acre, situated on a promontory 
on the coast of Palestine, was in the eyes of the Cru- 
saders one of the most important cities of the East. Sur- 
rounded on the land side by deep ditches, fortified with 
high walls and strong towers, and frequented by marin- 
ers and merchants from all parts of Europe and Asia, 
the capture and recovery of the place might well engage 
the attention of warriors." — Edgar. It had shared the 
fate of the other coast cities, as well as that of Jerusalem, 



134 

when Saladiii, the invincible warrior of the jMohammed- 
ans, proceeded from Egypt on his victorious career. It 
had been besieged for two years by a Christian army 
under tlie banner of Guy de Lusignan, who aspired to 
be king of Jerusalem. The Christians were now, in 
their turn, besieged by a large army of Saracens under 
the famous Saladin. When Philip arrived, he found 
the condition of the Christians in every way deplorable ; 
"but the efforts he made to assist them in the attack 
were unsuccessful, and the courage of the Crusaders again 
dropped. 

"The presence of the English might well revive the 
fainting courage of the Christians in the East. Coeur 
de Leon was considered a host in himself, and the men 
whom he led were proud of the prowess, and inspired by 
the spirit, of their king. Moreover, he was accompanied 
by Anglo-Norman nobles, who, as war-chiefs, had no 
rivals in Europe. 

" But the grandeur of the English Crusaders tended 
to inspire hatred in the breasts of their rivals, and, in a 
few days discord appeared. Any feeling of friendship 
that existed between Richard and Philip had evaporated 
at Messina, and, within a week after their re-union, dis- 
putes about the disposal of the crown of Jerusalem re- 
vived their old feud. The two parties, ever ready to 
come to blows, were in no temper to unite their arms 
against the infidels. They were still contending when 
Coeur de Leon was prostrated with sickness." 

Siege af Acre. — Philip vainly endeavored to reduce 
Acre without English aid. " Hoping to have the glory 
of accomplishing that in which his rival had failed. 



135 

Richard ordered his soldiers to prepare for an assault, 
and caused himself to be carried to the walls. The En- 
glish advanced to the attack, the king appearing among 
them on a silken bed armed with an arbalist, from which 
he discharged arrows and darts at the besieged. En- 
couraged by inspiriting words and promises of reward, 
the English wrought deeds of valor; but the height of 
the walls and the courage of the Turks baffled all effort 
to take the city. 

"Repeated failures convinced the kings of England 
and France of the impolicy of their conduct, and, har- 
mony having been restored, they, in compact, besieged 
the city with great ardor. Many fierce and sanguinary 
conflicts took place between Saladin and the Crusaders, 
but neither side, for a time, gained any decided advan- 
tage. Nevertheless the Crusaders persevered with such 
effect that the besieged, suffering from famine and fa- 
tigue, proposed to capitulate." — Edgar. 

The emirs consented to yield Acre, and to leave thou- 
sands as captives, on condition that the soldiers of the 
garrison were allowed to depart, unarmed. "Saladin 
on his part agreed to release all his Christian prisoners 
and to restore to the Crusaders the wood of the true cross, 
which he had taken in a former battle. But Saladin 
could not,' or did not, at once comply with these condi- 
tions. The impetuous Richard would hear of no delay, 
and put to death all tlie Mohammedan prisoners, to the 
number of several thousand men. On account of this 
rashness and cruelty, Richard was justly charged with 
the death of as many Christian captives, whom Saladin 
slaughtered by way of reprisal. 



Richard's Temper. — "Richard exhibited his violent 
temper upon another occasion. When the city of Acre 
surrendered, Leopold, Duke of Austria, caused his own 
banner to be displayed from the highest tower. Richard, 
highly exasperated at what he considered an insult, 
ordered the "Standard to be taken down, thrown into the 
ditch, and replaced by the banner of St. George. Leo- 
pold felt the indignity, but dissembled his anger and 
circumstances gave him the opportunity, as we shall 
soon relate, of taking an ample revenge, though at the 
expense of his faith and honor. 

" The knightly qualities of Richard were more agree- 
able to the spirit of the age than the more statesmanlike 
ones of Philip. The rash valor and brilliant exploits in 
battle of the former gained him the applause of the 
multitude. Philip, who was of a jealous temperament, 
took offense at this, and his hatred for Richard was con- 
tinually displaying itself. 

Philip's Return. — " It was not long before Philip found 
out that nothing but barren laurels were to be gained in 
this war with the Saracens, and that but a small share 
of these would fall to his lot. He suddenly discovered 
that the air of Palestine was not favorable to his health. 
But before lie went, he made a solemn promise not to 
make any attempts on the territories of Richard, though 
at this very time he entertained the full intention of at- 
tacking them as soon as he returned. Leaving his 
troops in Palestine, under the command of the Duke of 
Burgundy, he gave them secret orders to omit no oppor- 
tunity of mortifying the English king." — Goodrich. 

Journey Continued. — When Philip had sailed for En- 



137 

rope, King Richard gave orders that the whole army 
should leave the captured city to continue their march 
to Jerusalem. " Richard commenced his march along 
the coast, having the sea on his right, and, on his loft, 
heights from which the Saracens watched his move- 
ments, and awaited a favorable opportunity to attack 
them. Day by day the great sultan infested the Crusa- 
ders' line of march, and, at the head of an army infi- 
nitely superior in numbers, caused them the utmost an- 
noyance. ' ' — Edgar. 

Battle of Assur. — While advancing toward the city of 
Assur and entering a narrow plain, the Saracens offered 
battle. " Part of the Moslem army covered the heights ; 
while the main body awaited the Crusaders on the mar- 
gin of the river." Richard ordered his army to move 
forward in a compact mass, without retaliating. The 
Crusaders soon saw that they were surrounded on every 
side, and at length, their plight became so intolerable that 
the patience of the knights was rapidly giving away. 
Murmurs were heard on every side, "but with a cour- 
age and calmness that would have done credit to Napo- 
leon, he ordered his warriors to stand fast until the 
Turks had emptied their quivers, and then to make the 
charge. So, when Saladin's hosts had exhausted their 
missiles upon the well-nigh impenetrable armor of the 
Crusaders, Cojur de Leon advanced with the main army 
of the Crusaders, and the shock was terrific. Fearful 
was the revenge which those steel-clad warriors now 
took upon the insolent foe. Christian and Moslem 
fought hand-to-hand and steel-to-steel." — Rhlpath. In 
the midst of the battle, Richard, brandishing his axe, 



138 

and shouting, " St. George," was seen wherever the 
contest was the keenest. The very sight of that Cyprian 
steed, with its stalwart rider, was terrible to foes. "The 
bravest of Moslems watched with apprehension the Cy- 
prian steed's furious rush ; the bravest of Moslems recoiled 
in terror before the swing of Coeur de Leon's battle-axe. 
In vain, Saladin threw himself into the battle and 
crossed weaj^ons with the mighty Plantagenet. Saracen 
after Saracen reeled to the ground, and it became impos- 
sible for them, notwithstanding their numbers, to with- 
stand the onslaught of thousands of knights headed by 
such a hero-king. Broken and beaten on all sides, the 
Moslem warriors abandoned the field and retreated to the 
forest of oaks. 

"The result of the battle mortified Saladin, and, call- 
ing together the emirs, he addressed them in anger. 

" 'Are these,' asked the sultan, ' the deeds of my 
brave troops, once so boastful, and whom I have so 
loaded with gifts ? It is a disgrace to our nation, thus 
to become as nothing in comparison with their glorious 
ancestors.' 

" ' Most sacred sultan,' answered one of the emirs, 
'this charge is unjust, for we fought with all our 
strength against the Franks, and did our best to destroy 
them. But it was of no avail, for they are encased in 
impenetrable armor, which no weapon can pierce. And 
furtlicr, there is among them one superior to any man 
we have ever seen. They call him Melech Ric, and he 
seems a king born to command the whole earth. He 
always charges before the rest, slaying our men ; no 
man can resist him or escape out of his hands. What 



139 

more could we have done against a foe so formidable?' " 
— Edgar. 

Joppa. — After his great victory on the Assur, Richard 
led the pilgrim army to Joppa, which they found in a 
dilapidated condition. Csesarea and Ascalon also fell 
into the hands of the Crusaders, It was the king's 
wish that they advance at once to Jerusalem, but the 
French barons insisted that the better policy was to tarry 
on the coast, rebuild the ruined fortresses and reserve 
the recapture of Jerusalem for the next campaign. Rich- 
ard resolved to repair the ramparts of the cities, and 
worked like a private soldier to rebuild towers and clear 
out the moat. The work, however, was not to the liking 
of all, and he gave mortal offense by insisting that 
others should follow his example. 

"I am neither carpenter nor mason," said Leopold, 
Duke of Austria, when pressed to leave the tent and 
take part in the operations. 

" Many of the Crusaders, longing for scenes of rev- 
elry and dissipation, returned to gratify their tastes in 
the taverns of Acre." — Adapted from Edgar. 

March Toward Jerusalem. — In the spring of 1192 the 
Crusaders once more rallied round the banner of Richard, 
eager to advance upon Jerusalem. All the knights took 
a solemn oath tliat they would not abandon the cause 
and the army proceeded from the coast as far as the val- 
ley of Hebron. Many Moslems fled from Jerusalem 
and Saladin himself gave up all for lost. Strange as it 
may appear, Richard stopped short in his victorious 
career when witliin sight of the Holy City. Was it the 
treachery of the Duke of Burgundy ? Had Richard 



140 

come to an understanding with Saladin or did he con- 
sider his resources insufficient for undertaking the siege 
of a city? Did the news from England, telling him of 
the intrigues of his treacherous brother, John, reverse 
his plans and destroy his hopes? None could answer. 

Here in the valley of Hebron, with the towers of 
Jerusalem in view, the Lion Heart called a council, and 
it was decided that the present prosecution of the enter- 
prise was inexpedient, and should be given up. It was 
not without pain that Richard gave the order to retreat. 
He covered his face with his hands and sadly turned 
away, declaring that he who could not redeem the Holy 
Sepulcher from the infidels was unworthy to behold it. 
— Adapted from Ridpath. 

After this scene Richard fell back to Ascalon, and 
from thence to Acre. The French and Germans rapidly 
deserted his standard, and Saladin, descending from the 
mountains, took Joppa. On hearing that the citadel 
was still in the possession of the Crusaders, Richard at 
the head of his scanty ranks, went to tlicir rescue. " He 
encountered an array of seven thousand on a plain out- 
side the city of Joppa. Though infinitely inferior in 
number, Richard made a noble struggle, unhorsed every 
champion that crossed his path, spread consternation 
among his foes, and excited the admiration of his friends. 
Night put an end to the conflict, but Richard's victory 
was secure ; and his marvelous feats of heroism filled 
the East with his fame. (Page 400, foot-note, Barnes ; 
page 205, foot-note, Edgar). 

"When winter came, Richard was eager to return to 
England. But the English king had no idea of steal- 



141 

ing away as Philip Augustus had done. ' The sea is 
stormy,' he wrote to Saladin, ' yet if you are inclined to 
make peace, I will brave all its tempests and proceed to 
Europe ; if you desire war, I will run all risks and be- 
siege Jerusalem.' " — Edgar. 

Truce. — A truce of three years and eight months was 
finally concluded between Richard and Saladin. It was 
agreed that the fortress of Ascalon should be dismantled 
as it was regarded a constant menace to Egypt. On 
the other hand. Tyre, Acre, and Joppa, with all the sea- 
coasts between them, should remain to the Crusaders, 
and all Christian pilgrims who came unarmed should 
have free access to the holy places of Palestine, especially 
those in Jerusalem. "The king and sultan contended 
w^io should display most courtesy, and did not even 
require oaths to the terms, but contented themselves 
with their royal words, and touching the hands of each 
other's ambassadors. Christians and Moslems celebrated 
the conclusion of peace with tournaments and festivals, 
and most of the Crusaders, having visited the Holy City, 
embarked for Europe." — Edgar. 

RicJiard's Return. — " Richard started on his home- 
ward voyage in the autumn of 1192. After many storms 
at sea, Richard was at last shipwrecked on the coast of 
Dalmatia in the dominion of Leopold, the Duke of Aus- 
tria, his old enemy. He now put on the disguise of a 
pilgrim, hoping to pass through German}'' without be- 
ing known. But the traveler displayed a generosity 
and profuseness more suitable to the king he was, than 
to the pilgrim he wished to appear. 

" The intellige«nce soon spread through Germany, that 



142 

Hugh the Merchant was no other than Richard Planta- 
genet. The king arrived, however, without molestation 
at Saltzburg, and tlie governor there sent one of his 
kniglits to discover who he was. This man was by- 
birth a Norman and instantly knew the king ; but 
instead of betraying him, he presented him with a horse, 
and entreated him to fly and save himself . Accompanied 
by a boy and one other attendant, he reached a town near 
Vienna. 

"Here he entered an inn, and, that no suspicion 
might be aroused concerning his rank, he busied 
himself turning the spit ; but he forgot to conceal a 
splendid ring which he wore on his finger, and a man 
who had seen him at Acre, knew him and gave infor- 
mation to the Duke of Austria, who had not forgot- 
ten the insult offered to him after the capture of that 
city. 

Captivity. — "The duke meanly seized the opportunity 
of vengeance which chance offered him, and threw the 
unfortunate prince into prison. His place of confine- 
ment was long kept concealed. There is a very pretty 
story told of the manner in wliich it was discoverd that 
is worth repeating : 

" Blondel de Nesle, a favorite minstrel of Richard's, 
who had attended his person, devoted himself to discover 
his whereabouts. He wandered in vain from castle to 
palace, till he had heard that a strong fortress, on the 
banks of the Danube, was watched with peculiar strict- 
ness, as if containing some prisoner of distinction. 

" The minstrel took his harp, and, approaching tlie 
castle as near as he durst, came so near the walls as to 



143 

hear the captive soothing his imprisonment witli music. 
Blondel touched his harp ; the prisoner heard and was 
silent ; upon this the minstrel played the first part of a 
tune, known to Richard, who instantly played the second 
part ; and thus the faithful servant knew that the captive 
was no other than his royal master. 

"This knowledge, however, was of little immediate 
advantage to Richard ; for when the news reached the 
Emperor of Germany, he compelled the Duke to surren- 
der his prisoner. The treatment of Richard was now 
worse than before ; he was committed to a gloomy dun- 
geon and loaded with chains." — Goodrich. 

After a while he was taken to Worms, where a: meet- 
ing of the princes of Germany, called a diet, was held. 
The Emperor, to justify his conduct, accused the En- 
glish king of having driven Philip Augustus out of 
Palestine, and maltreated the Duke of Austria. He also 
accused him of treachery towards the interests and wishes 
of Christendom, the treaty with Saladin being wholly 
favorable to the Moslems. But Richard defended him- 
self so eloquently and pathetically, that some of his 
judges shed tears on hearing him, and all were con- 
vinced of the malice of his accusers. Nevertheless, the 
spirit of the age permitted the Emperor to exact of his 
royal prisoner a ransom equal to about one and one-half 
million dollars. — Adapted. 

Ransomed. — "Queen Eleanor, and everybody in Eng- 
land who loved King Richard — and there were many 
who did — used every means to raise the money required 
for his ransom. A general tax was levied to procure it, 
but, tliis not proving sufficient, the nobles voluntarily 



144 

contributed a quarter of their yearly incomes, and the 
silver that was in the churches and monasteries was 
melted down. 

" When the money was collected, Queen Eleanor took 
it herself to Germany, and had the happiness of receiv- 
ing her son and bringing him to England. After an 
absence of four years he arrived at London in March, 
1194, and was received with overflowings of joy." — 
Goodrich. 

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES. — Continued. 

Richard, King of Eii§:land. — "After Richard had set- 
tled the affairs of his kingdom, he set out for Normandy, 
to defend it from an attack with which it was threatened 
by Philip. One morning Prince John suddenly rushed 
into his apartment, and, throwing himself at liis feet, 
implored his forgiveness. This the king immediately 
granted, though he could not feel any affection for such 
a brother. Indeed, he soon after said to some of his at- 
tendants, 'I wish I may forget my brother's injuries as 
soon as he will forget my pardon of them.' 

"The remainder of Richard's life was passed in a suc- 
cession of wars and truces with the King of France, who 
had neither the good faith to keep a treaty nor the cour- 
age to fight." 

Richard Fatally Wounded. — In 1199, the Viscount of 
Limoges, a vassal of the king, had found a considerable 
treasure on his lands. Richard claimed this as his right 
as sovereign, but the viscount would yield only a part. 
Thereupon Plantagenet went with a band of warriors to 
take the castle of his refractory subject. 



145 

"The garrison offered to surrender the castle, and all 
that was in it, provided they might march out with 
their arms. Richard vindictively refused their offer, 
protesting he would take the place by force and put 
them all to death. As he was -taking a survey of the 
castle and giving directions for the assault, he was 
wounded by an arrow from the bow of Bertram de 
Gourdon. The wound appeared trifling at first, but in 
a few days the life of the king was despaired of. Before 
he died the castle was taken, and all the garrison were 
instantly hanged, excepting Bertram, whom Richard 
ordered to be brought into his presence. 'What liarm 
have I done you,' said the king to him, * that you should 
thus have attempted my death?' 

'' 'You have killed my father and brother with your 
own hands,' replied the man, 'and intended to have 
killed me, and I am read}' to suffer with joy any tor- 
ments you can invent, since I have been so lucky as to 
kill one who has brought so many miseries on mankind.' 
Richard, conscious of the truth of this bold reply, bore 
it with patience, and ordered the man to be set at liberty; 
but his command was not obeyed. Richard died on the 
Gth of April, 1199, in the forty-second year of his age, 
and tenth of his reign, only four months of which he 
had passed in E-ngland.." — Goodrich. (Character of 
Saladin — Read Scott's 'Talisman.') 

King- John and the Ma§:na Charta. — King John, 

Richard's brother, was the worst king and the worst 

man that ever wore the crown of England. His nobles, 

tired out by his weakness and wickedness, drew up a 

Med. His.— 10 



14G 

declaration of rights. The king was called upon to sign 
this, but refused to do so. But being compelled to yield, 
he met the barons the 15th of June, 1215, in a large 
meadow near Windsor, called Rnnnymede, which means 
"the meadow of council," and was so called because it 
had been used by the Saxons for public meetings. At 
this meeting was signed the famous Magna Charta, 
which has since been considered as the foundation of 
English liberty. 

By it the nobles were relieved from much of the 
oppressive tyranny of the feudal system. This had been 
constantly increasing, till no subject could act in the 
commonest affairs of life without the king's consent, 
which could be obtained only for money. 

The great charter contains sixty -three articles, and 
3'et only one of these is for the protection of the labor- 
ing people. It provides that even a farmer shall not, by 
any fine, be deprived of his carts, plows, and imple- 
ments of husbandry. — Adapted from Goodrich. 

The thirteenth century is also memorable for the 
formation of the House of Commons. The first regular 
English Parliament, composed of the two assemblies — 
the House of Lords and the House of Commons, was 
called (12G5) in the reign of Henry III., son of John. 
Besides the barons, two knights from each county and 
two citizens from each city or borough represented the 
freeholders. 

THE FOURTH CKUSADE. 

The Fourth Crusade was a great piratical expedition 
an<l nothing else. It consisted of French and Germans 



147 

under the leadership of the Count of Flanders. As it 
had been proved that the route by the sea was much to 
be preferred to that by land, the Crusaders went to 
Venice to demand ships. 

Venice. — "Venice was then queen of the Adriatic, 
The inhabitants had been driven by Attila's invasion 
from the main land to the islands in the lagoons, and 
had found safety and prosperity in that situation, which 
is alone of its kind in the world. Not one of the ruling 
powers which had passed over Italy had been able to 
touch them. Their commerce was extensive ; the islands 
of the Adriatic and the eastern coasts of the sea had 
recognized their supremacy. They seconded the crusades 
partly from religious conviction, and partly from a spirit 
of gain. The Mussulmans and the Greeks were their 
rivals in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. They 
considered it a good opportunity to dispossess them. 
Their services to the Crusaders procured for them in 1130 
the privilege of exclusive quarters in each town of the 
new kingdom of Jerusalem. At the same time they 
took possession of the Greek islands of Rhodes, Samos, 
Scio, Lesbos, and Andros. In Venice the reconciliation 
took place between Frederick Barbarossa and the pope, 
which restored peace to Italy. A slab of red porphyry 
still marks the place in the vestibule of St. Mark, where 
the interview occurred. In memory of that event and 
of the Venetian victory on the Adriatic, the pope gave 
the chief of Venice that ring which the doge or ruler of 
Venice threw into the sea as a token of marriage with 
the Adriatic. After that, this ceremony was repeated 
every year, with a pomp that exalted the pride and 



148 

patriotism of the Venetians. The government of Venice 
was aristocratic and the office of doge was elective." — 
Duriiy. 

Such was Venice when the ambassadors of the Cru- 
saders arrived. The veteran doge of Venice, Henrico 
Dandolo, now ninety-three years of age and blind as a 
stone, but still fired with the zeal and spirit of youth, 
convened the councils of state, and afterward called to- 
getlier the citizens in the great square of St. Mark. 
" Here in the presence of the assembled state of Venice 
the French barons knelt before the majesty of the peo- 
ple, and besought, with all the fervor of eloquence, the 
aid of the republic in the recovery of the holy places 
of the East." — Adapted from RidpatJi. 

In return for so great a service the mercantile city of 
Venice could not do otherwise than make it a matter of 
business. They agreed to furnish a fleet of fifty galleys, 
four thousand knights, nine thousand men-at-arms, and 
twenty thousand infantry with horse and accoutrements, 
and provisions for nine months — all for the sum of 
eighty-five thousand marks or more than $800,000. — 
Compiled from Duruy. 

The Crusaders could not raise such a large sum of 
money. After more than a year's time only fifty thou- 
sand marks were secured. The doge and citizens of the 
Republic refused to permit the departure of the fleet 
until the entire amount should be paid. 

At length the doge proposed that instead of the 
present payment of the remaining marks, the Crusaders 
should assist him in reducing the revolted city of Zara 
on the coast of Dalmatia. The remaining indebtedness 



149 

might then be paid at the close of the Crusade. He also 
l^romised, if this proposition met their approval, to as- 
sume the cross himself and conduct the fleet against the 
Syrian infidels. 

In spite of the anathemas of the pope, the Crusaders 
and Venetians, under the command of the blind old doge, 
in 1202, besieged Zara and took possession of it after 
five days' siege. The lives of the inhabitants were 
spared, but the fortifications were torn down and the 
city itself given up to pillage. 

In the following year the Crusaders and Venetians, 
entirely turned from their original purpose, laid siege to 
Constantinople. They stormed the city, plundered its 
palaces, and destroyed its precious monuments. A Latin 
Empire was now established at Constantinople. This 
lasted half a century, but was broken up by the Greeks in 
1261, when the Byzantine capital again became a Greek 
city. — Complied from Edgar. (Invasion of Tartars, page 
282, Duruy; Children's Crusade; Gray, and "Zigzag 
Journeys in Classic Lands.") 

THE LAST CKUSADER. 

King Edward I of England became leader of the 
Seventh Crusade on the death of St. Louis, in 1270. He 
gathered a formidable force, with which he landed at 
Acre, then held by the Christians. The movement was 
futile in recovering more of the Holy Land, and he soon 
returned home. Edward is known in history as the 
" Last of the Crusaders." 



150 

Left to the Savior's conquering foes, 

Tlie land that girds the Savior's grave; 

Where Godfrey's crozier-standard rose, 

He saw the crescent banner wave. 

There, o'er tlie gently broken vale, 

The halo light on Zion glowed ; 

There Kedron, with a voice of wail. 

By tombs of saints and heroes flowed ; 

There still the olives silver o'er 

The dimness of the distant hill ; 

There still the flowers that Sharon bore 

Calm air with many an odor fill. 

Slowly the Last Crusader eyed 

The towers, the mount, the stream, the plain. 

And thought of those whose blood had dyed 

The earth with crimson streams in vain! 

He thought of that sublime array— 

The hosts that over land and deep 

The Hermit marshaled on their way, 

To see those towers and halt to weep. 

Resigned the loved, familiar lands, 

O'er burning wastes the cross to bear, 

And rescue from the Paynim's hands 

No empire save a sepulcher! 

And vain the hope, and vain the loss. 

And vain the famine and the strife; 

In vain the faith that bore the cross. 

The valor prodigal of life! 

And vain was Richard's lion-soul, 

And guileless Godfrey's patient mind, 

Like waves on shore, they reached the goal. 

To die and leave no trace behind! 

"O God! " the last Crusader cried. 

"And art Thou careless of Thine own? 
For us Thy Son in Salem died, 
And Salem is the scoffer's throne! 
And shall we leave, from age to age, 
To godless hands the Holy Tomb? 
Against Thy saints the heathen rage — 
Launch forth Thy lightnings, and consume!" 



151 

A form flashed, wliite-robbed. from above ; 

All Heaven was in those looks of light, 

But Heaven, whose native air is love. 
"Alas!" the solemn vision said, 
"Thy god is of the shield and spear — 

To bless the quick and raise the dead, 

The Savior God descended here ! 

Ah! know'st thou not the ver}^ name 

Of Salem bids thy carnage cease, — 

A symbol in itself to claim 

God's people to a Home of Peace? 

Ask not the Father to reward 

The hearts that seek, through blood, the Son; 

O Warrior, never by the sword 

The Savior's Holy Land is won." 

— Sir E. Bulwer-Lijtton. 

Results of the Crusades. — Asia apparently triumphed. 
Palestine remained in the hands of the Mohammedans 
after they had completely conquered it in 1291. Though 
the Crusades had failed of their direct object, they had 
produced marked results both good and evil. — Adapted. 

"Among their advantages, it may be observed that 
they had a refining influence on the ruder nations of the 
North, by bringing them in contact with Constantinople 
and the rich cities of Italy, then the centers of Christian 
civilization and art. The}^ diffused a knowledge of use- 
ful inventions and arts, in which the Orientals were 
then proficient. They promoted commerce, and event- 
ually revived an interest in manufactures. " "New indus- 
tries were brought back from the East ; the tissues of 
Damascus, which were imitated at Parma and Milan ; 
glass from Tyre, which was copied at Venice, where 
looking-glasses were made to replace the metal mirrors ; 
the use of wind-mills, of flax, of silk, of a number of 



152 

useful plants, such as the Damascus })lum tree, the sugar 
cane, which was to supersede honey, the only sugar 
known to antiquity, but which at first could only be cul- 
tivated in Sicily or Spain, whence it passed later to Ma- 
deira and the Antilles, bringing great wealth with it; 
and, finally, the mulberry tree, which first enriched 
Italy, then France. Cotton fabrics began to be known 
during this epoch, though no cotton industry of any im- 
portance was founded in France before the seventeenth 
century. Paper made from cotton had been known for 
a long time ; linen paper was known by the end of the 
tliirteenth century, but it did not entirely replace parch- 
ment until the sixteenth century. Damaskening and 
the engraving of seals and coins were being perfected. 
The art of enameling was learned, and the goldsmith's 
art received a new impulse." — Duruy and Quackenhos. 

" On the other hand, the Crusade cost Europe two mill- 
ions of efficient men and vast amounts of treasure ; they 
unsettled sober industries, encouraged profligacy, and for 
a time rolled back the tide of order and civilization 
which had set in after the inundations of the Norse- 
men . 

" Whatever the effect, whether good or bad, on the 
general condition of the people, there is no doubt that 
the Crusades contributed to the overthrow of feudalism 
and the strengthening of the power of the church. To 
raise means for the equipment of their forces, the nobles 
in many cases were obliged to part with their fiefs. 
Numbers fell in battle, and left their lands to the crown 
or to the church. Cities, in return for advances of 
money, obtained an increase of privileges, and thus the 



153 

power of knights and nobles, as a class, diminished, 
while that of the kings, the church, an.d the cities, 
proportionately increased. 

" A better knowledge of geography, which had before 
been imperfect, was one of the results of the travel and ad- 
venture in the East. Such stories as were told in a 
geographical work of the eleventh century, that the in- 
habitants of Russia had but one leg and one eye, were 
no longer currently believed. In fact, a spur was given 
to exploration, which subsequently led to the doubling 
of the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery of Amer- 
ica." — Quackenbo'<. (Read story of Marco Polo.) 

The Growth of the Cities. — "We have already men- 
tioned in connection with the castles, the settlements 
which grew up beneath the shadow of their walls. It 
was to the interest of the lord of the castle to enlarge 
these communities, thereby increasing the number of his 
subjects and artisans and augmenting his revenues, and 
even his military forces ; for many a time the men, 
whether from the towns or from villages, were seen 
marching, led by their priest, wherever their lord di- 
rected. He also tried to attract the peasants from the 
neighboring domains by the advantages he offered on his 
land." 

In all the cities a middle class was formed which grew 
richer day by day through commerce and industry. 
They filled the universities, and acquired knowledge, 
especially legal knowledge. In England the towns united 
with the nobility against the power of royalty; in Ger- 
many, as in France, they allied themselves with the sov- 
ereign against the feudal system. The serfs of the 



154 

neighboring lords took refuge in the cities, and at the 
end of a year and a day they could not be redeemed." 
This gave rise to many complaints on the part of the 
lords and caused almost perpetual war between the cities 
and the nobles. The cities were thus compelled to unite 
for mutual protection and became more and more a 
power in the land. 

"The towns in Germany which enjoyed the greatest 
prosperity were those lying on the Rhine and in Lor- 
raine ; Mainz, Cologne, Coblenz, Bonn, Aix-la-Chapelle; 
in Saxony, Magdeburg, Bremen, and Hamburg ; in 
Franconia, Frankfort on the Main, Spire, Worms, etc. 
Their commerce extended far and wide; they exchanged 
commodities from the north of Europe for those of the 
East." 

Hanseatic League. — "In the low countries of the north 
of Germany and France, which were often flooded by 
w^ater and intersected by rivers, the cities naturally were 
stronger than the feudal nobility. From their situation 
on the ocean and at the mouth of great rivers, wdiich 
could carry their ships in all directions into the very 
heart of a vast continent, they naturally devoted them- 
selves to commerce; but with this difference from the 
Italian cities, that, whereas the latter always looked 
upon each other as rivals, as there was no powerful 
feudal system in their midst to force them to unite 
against a common foe, the German cities formed a con- 
federation in the interest of mutual protection. This 
confederation, called the Hanseatic League, held the 
supreme power in the north of Europe, and united all 



the cities of the Baltic, the Rhine, and the great com- 
m.unes of Flanders. 

"From London to Novgorod, on all the vessels of 
commerce and above all the counting-houses, floated one 
and the same flag — that of the Hansa. The merchants 
of this league were masters of the fisheries, the mines, 
the agriculture, and the manufactures of Germany. In 
their markets were exchanged the furs, tallow, and hides 
from Russia; grain, wax, and honey from Poland; 
amber from Prussia; metals from Saxony and Bohemia; 
wines from the Rhine and France; wool and tin from 
England; linens from Holland and Friesland; cloths 
from Flanders; and, last but not least, the Italians and 
Provencals sent tlie products of the Orient to the great 
free port of Bruges. In 1360, there were fifty-two 
cities in this confederation, and in the eighteenth cen- 
tury eighty cities." (Poem "Ghent," "Antwerp," 
"Bruges." See Longfellow's and Ford's Historical 
Poems.) 

Flanders.—'' Flanders, situated in the very midst of 
this great commercial association of Germany, and cov- 
ered with cities and workshops, was a zealous center of 
industry. Ghent numbered 80,000 citizens able to bear 
arms ; Ypres counted 200,000 weavers within her walls 
and suburbs ; Bruges, tlie entrepot of all Flanders, was 
the meeting-place of European merchants. The whole 
world was clothed in English wool, which had been 
manufactured in Flanders. All the kingdoms of Chris- 
tendom, and even the Turks, were disturbed by the war 
that broke out between the cities and the count in 1380. 
■ Amsterdam, Holland.—" In the thirteenth century, an 



ir,6 

inundation of the ocean joined the Zuyder Zee witli the 
ocean, and made Amsterdam a port secure from all 
tempests; in the fourteenth century, the change of the 
herring fishery, which left the shores of Scania for the 
shores of England and Holland, brought a great source 
of wealth to these countries." — Duruy. (Read "Hans 
Brinker.") 

HOLLAND. 

Where the Rhine, 
Branched out in many a long canal, extends, 
From every province swarming, void of care, 
Batavia rushes forth ; and, as they sweep, 
On sounding skates, a thousand different ways. 
In circling poise, swift as the winds, nlong, 
The then gay land is maddened all to joy. 

— James Thomson. 

HOLLAND. 

To men of other minds my fancy flies, 
Embosomed in the deep where Holland lies. 
Methinks her patient sons before me stand. 
Where the broad ocean leans against tlie land, 
And, sedulous to stop the coming tide, 
Lift the tall rampire's artificial pride. 
Onward, methinks, and diligently slow, 
The firm, connected bulwark seems to grow; 
Spreads its long arms amidst the watery roar. 
Scoops out an empire, and usurps the shore ; 
While the pent ocean, rising o'er the pile, 
Sees an amphibious world beneath him smile: 
The slow canal, the yellow-blossomed vale. 
The willow-tufted bank, the gliding sail. 
The crowded mart, the cultivated plain, 
A new creation rescued from his reign. 

— Oliver Goldsmith. 



. 157 

THE STORKS. 
Where the Rliine loses his majestic force 
In Belgian plains, won from the raging deep 
By diligence amazing, and the strong, 
Unconquerable hand of Liberty, 
The stork-assembly meets ; for many a day, 
Consulting deep and various ere they take 
Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky; 
And now their route designed, their leaders chose. 
Their tribes adjusted, cleaned their vigorous wings; 
And many a circle, many a short essay. 
Wheeled round and round, in congregation full 
The figured flight ascends; and, riding high 
The aerial billows, mixes with the clouds. 

— James Thomson. 

(Read otlier poems — ''The Leak in the Dike," by 
Phoebe Carey; ''Holland in the Olden Time," by John 
Bowring. See Longfellow's " Poems of Europe.") 

England.—" Under King John, the granting of chart- 
ers became a frequent occurrence. From that time on, 
the cities, grown rich and powerful, inspired respect in 
their lords, whether kings or barons, who no longer 
exacted but asked the cities and towns of their domains 
for assistance; the foremost citizens of London, Dover, 
Sandwich and Hastings even acquired the title of nobles 
and barons. In 12G4 the above mentioned towns, to- 
gether with York and Lincoln and all the other great 
cities of England were authorized to send deputies to 
parliament. This marks[tlieir first appearance in politi- 
cal life. One hundred and twenty towns sent deputies 
to the parliament convoked by Edward in 1295." 

" In England, both commerce and industry were still 
dormant. Nevertheless, England had some commercial 
relations with Spain, from which she received Arab 



158 

horses in exchange for her fine slieep. Tlie best Englisli 
herds of to-day are descended from the Arab horses." — 
Duruy. (Poem, " Homes of England," by Mrs. Ilem- 
ans ; poem, " Rule Britannia," by James Thomson.) 

THE HOMES OF ENGLAND. 

The stately homes of England, 

How beautiful they stand, 
Amidst their tall ancestral trees, 

O'er all the pleasant land! 
The deer across their greensward bound 

Through shade and sunnj^ gleam, 
And the swan glides pant them with the sound 

Of some rejoicing stream. 

The merry homes of England — 

Around their hearths by night, 
What gladsome looks of household love 

Meet in the ruddy light ! 
There woman's voice flows forth in song, 

Or childhood's tale is told ; 
Or lips move tunefully along 

Some glorious page of old. 

The blessed homes of England, 

How softly on their bowers, 
Is laid the holy quietness 

That breathes from Sabbath hours! 
Solemn, yet sweet, the church bells' chime 

Floats through their woods at morn. 
All other sounds in that still time 

Of Vjreeze and leaf are born. 

The cottage homes of England 

By thousands on her plains, 
They are smiling o'er the silvery brooks, 

And round the hamlet fanes. 
Through glowing orchards forth they peep, 

Each from its nook of leaves. 
And fearless there the lowlj' sleej). 

As the bird beneath their eaves. 



159 

The free, fair homes of England, 

Long, long, in hut and hall, 
Many hearts of native proof be reared 

To guard each hallowed wall. 
And green forever be the groves. 

And bright the flowery sod, 
Where first the child's glad spirit loves 

Its country and its God. 

— Mrs. Hemans. 

Mediterranean Cities. — " The commerce on the Medit- 
erranean flourished long before that of the North. With- 
out mentioning the cities on the African coast which 
were so prosperous during the tenth and eleventh cen- 
turies, or the Arabs in Spain, who were so industrious 
and so rich, there were Barcelona, the store-house and 
market of Spain, Montpellier, Narbonne, Marseilles, Nice, 
Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Amalfi, and Venice, which were 
all struggling for the supremacy over the eastern com- 
merce. The Italian cities gained the greater part, and 
scattered their counting-houses over the coasts of the 
Archipelago and the Black Sea, where Venice and Genoa 
ruled, either simultaneously or by turns." 

Intermediate Stations. — Intermediate stations between 
the Mediterranean cities and those of the North and Baltic 
Seas became necessary. Marseilles, Beaucaire, Lyons, 
andTroyes served France ; Constance, Basle, and Strass- 
burg for the Rhine country ; Innsbruck for the Alps ; 
Augsburg for the great Bavarian plain ; Ulm, Ratisbon, 
and Vienna for the Danube, and Nuremberg for Fran- 
conia. In these cities, the products of the North and 
South were exchanged. — Adapted. 

France. — " In France, in the twelfth century, annual 



IGO 

fairs, which were famous throughout Europe, were hokl 
at Troyes in Champagne, Beaucaire, and St. Denis, near 
Paris. The merchants of Rouen, Orleans, Amiens, and 
Rheims kept up relations with the rich factories of 
Flanders and the immense warehouses of Bruges. Those 
of Lyons, Nimes, Avignon, and Marseilles went twice a 
3"ear to Alexandria in search of the commodities of the 
East, which reached France also through Venice and 
the German cities. Bordeaux already exported wines 
to England and Flanders. The cities of Lanquedoc 
hought fine weapons at Toledo, and the hangings of 
leather worked with arabesques at Cordova. Paris had 
an association for the merchandise which came by water. 
Hence the vessel which is still to be seen on the shield 
of the city. Saint Louis took the merchants under his 
special protection." — Dvi-uy. 

IV. SWITZKKL.VND. 

In the time of the Romans, Switzerland was called 
Helvetia. It was subject to the Franks in the sixth 
century. After the division of Charlemagne's empire 
the northern part had become incorporated in the Ger- 
man Empire ; but the ancient forest cantons on Lake 
Lucerne had never been conquered and were only under 
the protection of the emperors. 

" In the twelfth century the cities — Zurich, Basle, 
Berne and Freiberg — began to be centers of trade, 
and gained municipal privileges." 

For some time after the beginning of the thirteenth 
century the German emperors proved lenient masters. 
In 1298, however, Albert I, styled Duko of Austria, 



161 

*' proposed to unite the free Swiss towns to his Austrian 
estates, and this occasioned a memorable struggle for 
liberty. Albert appointed as governor an unscrupulous 
tyrant, Gessler, whose acts of oppression aroused the 
slumbering spirit of the Swiss. According to legendary 
history the hero William Tell was the liberator of his 
country. Refusing to bow before the ducal cap of Aus- 
tria, which Gessler had elevated on a pole in the market- 
place of Altorf, Tell was seized and condemned by the 
governor to pierce with an arrow an apple placed on the 
head of his son." (See Knowles' poem of "William 
Tell " in " McGuffey's Fifth Reader "; also the sonnet 
" William Tell" by W. C. Bryant.) 

"In 138G a small force of Swiss gained another great 
victory over the Austrians at Sempach. In this battle 
Arnold Winkelried cried to his countrymen: "Dear 
brothers, I will open a way for you ; take care of my 
wife and children." Then, rushing on the bristling 
spears of the Austrians, he gathered as many as he 
could within his grasp, and thus opened a path for his 
comrades into the ranks of the foe. (See poem in "In- 
diana Fifth Reader.") 

"The independence of Switzerland was not fully 
established till the end of the fifteenth century." — 
Quackenbos. (See story of John Huss in histories.) 

ENGLAND IN MIDDLE AGES (CONCLUDED.) 

The First Prince of Wales (1283).— AVales and Ire- 
land had both been reduced to submission in the twelfth 
century by Henry II, father of Richard the Lion-hearted. 
Med. His.— 11 



1(V2 

In the thirteenth century, Llewellyn, the Welsh chief, de- 
clined to go to London to serve the new king, Edward L, 
grandson of John. A military expedition was at once 
sent to subdue the country. Lispired by the wild poe- 
try of their bards, the Welsh gallantly defended their 
liberties; but Llewellyn was eventually slain (1282), 
and King Edward, in order to conciliate the people, 
promised them a native-born sovereign who could speak 
no English. When their barons assembled, he pre- 
sented them his own son Edward, born a few days before 
in the Welsh castle of Carnarvon, and the chieftains 
kissed the hands of the first Prince of Wales. 

War With Scotland.— "The ambition of Edward I. led 
him to attempt the annexation of Scotland. He at first 
proposed the marriage of the Scottish princess to his 
son, thinking by this means to consolidate the whole 
island into one monarchy. The plan was favorably re- 
ceived, but unfortunately frustrated by the decease of 
the Scottish child-queen. Thirteen nobles at once 
claimed the vacant throne, chief of whom were John 
Baliol and Robert Bruce. The Scots asked Edward to de- 
cide the question of succession." He decided in favor of 
Baliol, on condition of his doing homage to the English 
monarch as his feudal lord. The Scots, impatient of 
their vassalage, soon revolted. Baliol renounced his al- 
legiance but was captured by Edward and incarcerated 
in the Tower of London. 

''Scotland, however, was still unsubdued ; a temporary 
deliverer appeared in the person of Sir William Wallace, 
against w4iom a powerful English army was promptly 
dispatched. Its commander, finding the Scots strongly 



1G3 

posted on the Forth, sent two friars to propose a truce. 
' Go tell your masters,' said Wallace, ' we came not here 
to treat, but to set Scotland free.' Enraged at this de- 
fiance, the English advanced and began to cross the river 
on a narrow bridge. When half the force had made the 
passage the Scots fell upon it and gained a complete vic- 
tory. 

" For a time Wallace acted as ' Guardian of the 
Realm,' but at last, defeated and betrayed by a follower 
to Edward, he was condemned as a traitor, and dragged 
at the tails of horses to the scaffold. His head, crowned 
in mockery with a wreath of laurel, was set on London 
Bridge. 

"Robert Bruce, grandson of the rival of Baliol, next 
arose as the restorer of his country's liberties, and after 
gaining some advantages over the English, was crowned 
king ( 1306). Edward, now an old man, again set out to 
conquer Scotland, but was overtaken on the way by 
death. He made his son promise to continue the war 
against the Scots, carrying his bones at the head of the 
army, for he believed that even the presence of these 
would be sufficient to insure victory. 

"Edward II. failed to comply with the dying injunc- 
tion of his father, and led his army back into England, 
He buried the dead monarch at Westminster with this 
inscription on his tomb, ' Edward I., the Hammer of 
the Scotch.' " 

"Edward had spent his youth in the society of dissolute 
companions, and now, surrounded by unworthy favorites, 
he gave himself up to dissipation. Bruce, meanwhile, 
with a little band, bravely struggled in the cause of his 



164 

country ; now foiling the blood-hounds that bayed on 
his track, now holding the mountain-pass single-handed 
against a host of foes. After many hair-breadth es- 
capes, fortune rewarded his efforts, and nearly all Scot- 
land was recovered from the English. 

Bannockhurn (1314). — These successes finally awak- 
ened Edward from his indifference. He took the field 
at the head of a large army, and came up with Bruce on 
the burn, or brook, of Bannock. The evening before the 
battle an English knight, perceiving Bruce riding in 
front of his army on a small Highland pony, bore down 
upon him with his lance. But the Scot parried the 
thrust, and, rising in liis stirrups, cleft his adversary's 
skull to the chin with one stroke of his battle-axe. 
This feat was looked upon as a good omen by his fol- 
lowers. In the gray of the morning they were led to 
the field by an abbot, barefoot and with a crucifix in his 
hand. The English, seeing them kneel as he prayed, 
shouted, ' They beg for mercy! ' ' Yes,' said the knight, 
'but only from God.' 

"The Scotch force was protected in front by pits 
filled with sharp stakes and concealed by sods; hence, 
when the English charged, their horses were entangled 
and the riders thrown. Bruce won the day, and Ed- 
ward fled from tlie kingdom, pursued by the Scottish 
cavahy. 

"The victory of Bannockburn naturally secured the 
independence of Scotland." By the accession of James 
VI. of Scotland to the English throne in 1603, England 
and Scotland were united under one sovereign. — Quack- 
enbos. (Read "Scottish Chiefs," by .Jane Porter, and 



165 

"Days of Bruce," by Grace Aquilar; also stories of 
Robert Bruce in readers.) 

Hundred Years' War. — From tlie time of William the 
Conqueror the English kings had laid claim to territory 
in France. This claim was increased by the marriage 
of Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry Plantagenet. In 
1328, Edward III. of England declared himself to be the 
nearest male heir to the throne of France, and com- 
menced his preparations for an invasion to assert his 
rights. A long and wasteful war between England and 
France called the Hundred Years' War was the result. 
Like the Peloponnesian War of Ancient Greece it was 
not one continuous struggle, but was broken by occa- 
sional truces, owing to the exhaustion of the contesting 
parties. — Adapted. Battle of Cre'ci). Landing at Nor- 
mandy (134G) Edward encountered Philip of France on 
the plain of Cre'cy. In this memorable battle the 
English yeomanry were more than a match for the 
chivalry of France. 

"The French peasant at that time was a poor misera- 
ble serf who had never handled arms. In England there 
were farmers and stout peasants who used to prac- 
tice shooting with the bow once a week." The French 
having no footmen to meet these sturdy English archers 
hired a body of Genoese cross-bow men to lead the ad- 
vance. Just before the battle a shower of rain fell which 
slackened the bow-strings of the Genoese archers ; but 
the English had their bows safe in leathern cases and 
their strings were in full order. The arrows galled the 
French Knights so that a charge was ordered to cut the 
English archers down. But full in the way stood the 



IGG 

poor Genoese f ambling to tighten their strings ; and the 
knights, becoming impatient at the delay, cut them 
down right and left, thus spending their strength against 
their own army. It was no wonder that the French were 
defeated with the loss of thirty thousand soldiers and 
twelve hundred knights — the flower of their chivalry. — 
Adapted from Miss Yonge. 

"Edward's eldest son, then only sixteen years old, 
called the Black Prince, from the color of his armor, 
commanded a division of the English. He was at one 
time almost overwhelmed by the foe, but his father re- 
fused to send him aid, in order that the boy might ' win 
his spurs.' " — Qnackenbos. The honor of knighthood 
had been conferred on him by Edward just before the 
battle, and the Black Prince proved worthy of the con- 
fidence. (See story of Black Prince in Goodrich's En- 
glish History. ) 

" It is said that the front of Edward's army was pro- 
tected by some pieces of cannon, the first that had yet 
been made use of in any battle in Europe. These can- 
nons were very clumt^y machines. They were composed 
of bars of iron, held together by hoops, and they com- 
monly burst at the third or fourth discharge. They 
were at first employed to shoot off darts and arrows." — 
Goodrich. 

The result of the victory at the battle of Cre'cy was 
the capture of Calais by the English. For two hundred 
years this seaport afforded a convenient landing-place 
for the invasion of France. 

The English continued to gain advantage until in 
1420 the French liad become so discouraged that a largo 



167 

party agreed that the crown of France should be given 
to Henry V. upon the death of Charles VI., the crazy 
king of France. Both kings died, however, within two 
months of each other. 

Siege of Orleans. — ''The infant son of Henry V. of 
England was now proclaimed king of England and 
France, and his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, who had 
been appointed protector, took the field to maintain his 
cause. The true heir to the French monarchy was the 
Dauphin, Charles VII., who was supported principally 
in the southern provinces. The English gained ground, 
and at last laid siege to Orleans, the most important 
city in tlie possession of Charles. After a severe block- 
ade the town was on the eve of capitulating, when a 
poor peasant-girl appeared on the stage to rescue France, 
in the summer of 1425." — Quackenbos. 

Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. — " Far away among 
the liills of Lorraine, in the eastern part of France, 
lived Joan of Arc, the daughter of a cottager, whose 
flock she tended. In her hours of solitude she saw vis- 
ions, and said that voices called to her from the woods. 
There was an old tradition that a girl from the forests of 
Lorraine would one day save France, and when she 
heard of the disasters that were befalling her country, 
Joan felt herself impelled to offer her services to the 
Dauphin, assured that the tradition would find its fulfill- 
ment. 

"Having proved her power to the king's satisfaction, 
by singling him out, though disguised, from a hundred 
knights who were present, Joan was sent to the army. 
She appeared in camp clad in a suit of white armor and 



ir.s 

mounted on a war horse ; her head was unhelmeted and 
her long black hair fell down around her shoulders. 
The rough men-at-arms received her with enthusiasm, 
and at her bidding left off their profanity and evil 
habits. She marched at their head, displaying a conse- 
crated banner, and effected an entrance into Orleans 
with a supply of provisions for the famishing citizens. 
From this moment success deserted the standard of the 
English ; their forts fell into the hands of Joan, and the 
siege was soon raised. From her heroism in relieving 
the beleaguered city, Joan was called the ' Maid of 
Orleans.' 

"Charles was subsequently crowned at Rheims, while 
the Maid stood by his side in complete armor. Having 
now performed her double mission, she knelt at his feet 
and prayed for her discharge. But Charles induced her 
to remain, — and for a sad fate. She was taken prisoner 
by the English, condemned for witchcraft and burned 
at the stake. The ungrateful king offered no ransom, 
proposed no exchange for the maid who had saved his 
crown. His end was almost as terrible as hers ; he 
starved himself to death from the dread of being poisoned 
by his son, afterward Louis XI. 

"The English profited little by the execution of Joan. 
' We are lost ' was the prediction of one of their own 
number who witnessed lier death, ' we have burned a 
saint.' One by one their conquests were forced from 
them; and, when the Hundred Years' War ended in 
1451, Calais alone remained in their possession." — 
Quackenbos. (Read Miss Kirkland's " Hist, of France " 
and " Hist, of England.") 



169 



FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE (1453). 

"The last great event of the Middle Ages was the ex- 
tinction of the Eastern Empire by the capture of Con- 
stantinople." The empire had been reduced to a state 
of debility before the Crusades. After the Venetians 
were driven out in 1261, it was equally exposed to the 
depredations of the Christians and the Turks, preserving 
only a high-sounding name, while it stood on the brink 
of destruction. " Narrow, superstitious ideas directed 
the measures of government, while they did not check 
the course of heinous crimes." "One of the feeble 
monarchs of Constantinople suffered himself to be per- 
suaded that the Greek Empire was under the peculiar 
protection of Heaven, and, therefore, a fleet was un- 
necessary for its defense." " For this reason, the coun- 
try was ravaged by pirates, and then overrun by the 
Ottoman Turks, so-called from their leader, Othman." — 
Compiled from Goodrich. (Page 493, Duru3^) 

Solinian. — These Turks, from the opposite bank, saw 
the splendor of the many towns ruled by the cross, and 
their eyes continually brooded upon the great rich city of 
Constantinople. One night Soliman, the grandson of 
Othman, was seated in the midst of the ruins of a con- 
quered city, watching by the light of the moon the 
sparkling waters of the Sea of Marmora, which led to 
the object of their great desire. "It seemed to him that 
the shadows thrown by tlie colossal ruins of the de- 
stroyed city lengthened out before him like a bridge 
across the sea, and at the same time mysterious voices 
reminded him that the empire of the world had been 



170 

promised to his race. ' This is a sign of God,' he said. 
When day hroke, he caused two rafts to be built, on 
which he embarked with thirty-nine men. One of the 
Greek emperors had recently asked his assistance in op- 
posing a rival, and Soliman, at the head of 10,000 
horsemen, had gone all through Thrace and Bulgaria, 
ravaging as he went. On his return he noticed how 
poorly guarded were the Greek fortresses on the straits. 
He surprised one of them with his thirty-nine men. 
Shortly after, an earthquake put into his hands the best 
fortification of the region — Gallipoli — whence the fright- 
ened inhabitants made their escape, flying what they 
believed to be the wrath of Heaven. The wrath of 
Heaven did indeed visit their city, but it came in the 
guise of the Turks. From that day they had gained a 
footing in Europe (1356)." — Duruy. 

Janizaries. — The Sultan Amurath, son of Soliman, 
organized the Turkish infantry, called Janizaries (new 
soldiers). This formidable body was made up of the 
stoutest and handsomest of the captive youth selected 
annually for service in the army. "Educated to the re- 
ligion of their masters, and trained in arms, they formed, 
like the Praetorian Guard of Rome, a powerful body- 
guard that was a terror to Europe." 

Capture of Adriaiipole. — Soliman had opened the 
gates of Europe to the Turks. Under Amurath they 
rushed in, but before they attacked Constantinople di- 
rectly, they turned to her surroundings. Amurath took 
Adrianople (1360) and made it his residence. "When 
he pitched his tent in the midst of implacable enemies 
he made it necessary for the existence of his people that 



171 

they should continue the conquest of the country, and 
by taking his stand in the second town of importance in 
Thrace, he forced them sooner or later to capture the 
first in rank." — Diiruy. 

John Paleolog:iis. — The emperor of Constantinople, to 
avert the danger, went himself to Rome to bring about 
the union of the Greek and Roman churches. The un- 
fortunate monarch exhausted his last resources upon his 
journey, and when, nothing being accomplished, he tried 
to return to the East, he was retained by his creditors. 
His son, Manuel, was obliged to sell all he possessed to 
gain the release of his father. The emperor then de- 
cided to pay tribute to the sultan, to become his vassal 
and follow him in his wars. The conquering Turks 
penetrated as far as the Save, and entered Thessaly and 
then Morea. Fear of them spread in the mountains of 
Austria and beyond the Adriatic. 

'' While the Turks were gaining these victories, Con- 
stantinople lived in constant fear, and tried to avert the 
wrath of the sultan by abject submission. John Paleo- 
logus paid the sultan a tribute of 30,000 gold crowns, and 
with a body of twelve thousand men assisted him in con- 
quering the Greek towns of Asia Minor. In 1391, he 
built two towers near one of the city gates. The sultan 
ordered him to demolish them, if ho did not wish his son 
Manuel, who was then in his service, to have his eyes put 
out. He obeyed. This same Manuel, when his father 
died, escaped from the court of the sultan, and returned 
to Constantinople. The sultan immediately blockaded 
the city for seven years, until the Turks were allowed to 
have a mosque and a cadi (judge) in the very city. In 



172 

1400, Manuel went to Paris and London displaying all 
the miseries of the great title he bore, and besought aid 
against the Turks. He even begged money to support 
his life, and he counted himself happy to obtain a pen- 
sion of 30,000 crowns from France. The last moment 
of the Greek Empire seemed to have come, when more 
efficient help arrived from an unsuspected quarter." 

Taniei'lane. — Another Mongol invasion occurred un- 
der Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghis Kahn. Like 
his ancestor, he attempted to extend his em])ire from the 
Pacific to the banks of the Vistula and Danube. Pie 
conquered Great Tartary,- Persia, and invaded India. 
At Ispahan he put 70,000 persons to death ; in Khoras- 
san, he had already massacred the whole population, ex- 
cept 2,000 men, who were later piled one upon the other, 
with mortar and brick to serve as foundation for several 
towers which he wished to build. Later, before he ar- 
rived at Delhi, India, being embarrassed by the exist- 
ence of 100,000 captives, he had them put to death. He 
amused himself in l>uil(ling at the city gates, pyramids of 
twenty or thirty thousand heads. Attila and his Huns 
were left far behind. In Russia, after making a victo- 
rious passage as far as the neighborhood of Moscow, a 
lack of forage and the severity of the climate forced him 
to retreat (1393). In 1398 he was to be found at the 
other extremity of his empire and of Asia. He was then 
sixty-two years old ; neither age nor fatigue had any 
power over him ; he dreamed of the conquest of the In- 
dies. "His tired emirs asked for rest ; he read them the 
Koran, which imposes an eternal combat with idola- 
tors." He spread terror upon the banks of the Indus 



173 

and Gauges ; from there througli southwestern Asia, 
burning Aleppo, Damascus, and Bagdad, until the 16th 
of June, 1402, he led 800,000 Mongols against 400,000 
of the Turks, under the Sultan Bajazet, son of Amurath. 
Here met two barbarous nations, two powers for evil 
which brought nothing but destruction in their train. 
"The Ottomans were defeated, their sultan taken, and 
Asia Minor fell into the hands of the conquerors, who 
did not stop until they came to the deep waters of the 
Archipelago. The land was theirs, but infidels held the 
sea. They went in search of other lands to conquer. 
Taking a survey of Asia from one end to the other, Tam- 
erlane could find but one empire still standing and 
worthy of his efforts, and that was China. He was lead- 
ing his countless hordes against that country when final- 
ly, March 19, 1405, death stopped the indefatigable old 
man, who has come down to us as the most terrible per- 
sonification in history of the evil spirit of conquest. 
After his death his empire was divided and disap- 
peared." — Adapted from Dumy. 

Amurath H. — The Ottomans, under Amurath II., 
again commenced their attacks upon the Venetians in 
Thessaly, Negropont, and Candia, gaining ground by 
every assault. "After many combats in Dalmatia, in 
Scrvia, in Wallachia, and even in Transylvania, the 
Hungarians felt the necessity of making a great effort to 
repulse the Ottoman domination which was coming upon 
them from three sides at once, along the Adriatic, by the 
Danube, and across the Carpathian Mountains. A 
Transylvanian nobleman, named John Hunyadi, was 
the hero of this war. The White Knight of Wallachia, 



174 

as he is called, destroyed in the 3'ear 1442, 20,000 Turks 
near Hermanstadt, and some time after he defeated witli 
15,000 men an army ten times as numerous. He was 
again victorious in Servia and Bulgaria." 

"Meanwhile, the Greek Emperor, in order to gain the 
help of Catholic Europe, had again offered to subscribe 
to the union of the two churches. But, if an angel 
had come down from heaven and said to the Greeks : 
'Agree to the union and 1 will agree to drive out your 
enemies,' they would have replied : ' Rather Moham- 
med than the pope.' The union accepted by the em- 
peror was refused by the bishops. It had the effect, 
however, of instigating a new crusade, which Ladislaw, 
king of Poland, conducted as far as Bulgaria. The 
Sultan became uneasy and asked for peace. It was con- 
cluded for ten years. He took his oath upon the Koran 
and Ladislaw upon the Gospels." Against the wishes 
of Hunyadi, the White Knight of AVallachia, the Cru- 
saders violated the treaty. " Ladislaw was killed, and 
Hunyadi saved but a small remnant of his army. 

"Amurath did not pursue the fugitives. He did not 
try to attack the great mass of all the Christian nations, 
whose weight he felt, although he had been victorious 
over them. He turned his attention to the little powers 
to the south of the Danube. In 1446 he conquered al- 
most all of Morea and invaded Epirus." There in those 
inaccessible mountains he found a terrible enemy — 
George Castriot — called by his countrymen Bey Alexan- 
der ; by the Turks, Scanderbeg. Amurath had brought 
him up but he had not been able to erase from the heart 
of the Christian boy the memory of his fatherland, the 



faith of his ancestors, and of independence. He threw 
off the friendship of the Turks and became their most 
bitter enemy. "In vain did Amurath overrun Albania 
with his troops ; Scanderbeg was always at hand — on 
their flanks, on their rear, above their heads ; always 
there and always striking, but always out of reach." 

Hunyadi, proclaimed regent of Hungary, marched 
into Servia meeting 150,000 Turks under Amurath. 
The Hungarian army was almost entirely destroyed ; 
Hunyadi escaped with the greatest difficulty. In 1451 
Amurath died at Adrianople, without having conquered 
Scanderbeg. — Adapted from Durmj. 

Mohammed II. — Mohammed II. ascended the throne 
with the resolution of taking Constantinople and of 
sacrificing everything to that end. " It was his constant 
thought by day and by night. One morning he called 
his vizier and said to him : ' Look at my couch ; look 
at this disorder; Constantinople keeps me from closing 
my eyes. Give me Constantinople.' " 

To sound the disposition of his soldiers, Mohammed 
often wandered through the streets alone and in disguise ; 
and it was fatal to discover tlie sultan when he wished 
to escape the vulgar eye. His hours were spent in 
delineating the plan of the hostile city ; in debating with 
his generals and engineers, on what spot he should erect 
his batteries, on which side he should assault the walls, 
where he should spring his mines, to what place he 
should apply his scaling-ladders." 

" He studied with peculiar care the recent discovery of 
gunpowder, and his artillery surpassed whatever had yet 
appeared in the world. A Hungarian named Urban, 



176 

who was an inventor of cannon, was not favored by the 
Greeks, so he deserted to the Moslems. When asked if 
he could cast a cannon capable of throwing a ball or 
stone of sufficient size to batter the walls of Constantino- 
ple, the artist replied : ' I am not ignorant of their 
strength, but, were they more solid than those of Baby- 
lon, I could oppose an engine of superior power.' On 
this assurance a foundry was established at Adrianople, 
the metal was prepared, and, at the end of three months, 
Urban produced a piece of bra°s artillery capable of 
throwing a stone bullet w^eighing about six hundred 
pounds. A vacant place before the new palace was 
chosen for the first experiment ; but, to prevent the sud- 
den and mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a 
proclamation was issued, that th^" jannon would be dis- 
charged the ensuing day. The explosion was felt or 
heard in the circuit of a hundred furlongs ; the ball was 
driven above a mile, and on the spot where it fell it 
buried itself a fathom deep in the ground. For the con- 
veyance of this destructive engine, a frame or carriage of 
thirty wagons was linked together, and drawn by a team 
of sixty oxen ; two hundred men supported the rolling 
weight; two Inindred and fifty workmen marched before 
to smooth the way and prepare the bridges; and nearly 
two months were employed in a laborious journey of one 
hundred and fifty miles. This enormous engine was 
flanked by two cannon of almost equal magnitude. We 
may discern the infancy of science wlien we learn that 
the great cannon could be loaded and fired no more than 
seven times a day." "A circumstance that distin- 
guished the siege of Constantinople was the union of 



177 

ancient and modern artillery. The cannon were inter 
mingled with the mechanical engines for casting stones 
and darts ; the bullet and battering ram were directed 
against the same walls ; nor had the use of gunpowder 
superseded the use of Greek fire." — Goodrich. 

Siege of Constantinople. — Mohammed easih^ found a 
pretext for declaring war against the Greek Emperor, 
Constantine Paleologus, and, in the spring of 1453, he 
led an immense army to beleaguer the city. Two hun- 
dred and sixty thousand men surrounded Constantino- 
ple, and a fleet was stationed at the entrance to the port, 
which the besieged had closed with a chain. 

"The defense of the city consisted of but 7,000 men, 
including 2,000 Venetians and Genoese, who were com- 
manded by an able le 'er, a Genoese named Justiniani. 
The Emperor Constantine offered up prayers in a church 
where a Roman bishop was officiating; his court prayed 
in the others, according to the Greek rites, and a mortal 

hatred on both sides separated the two parties." Duruy. 

Mohammed's troops covered the ground before the 
landward walls between the Sea of Marmora and the 
Golden Horn ; but he found that even his monster can- 
non could do but little against the massive fortifications. 
At length he resolved to assail the city from its weakest 
side — that facing the Golden Horn. Constantinople is 
separated from its suburbs, Peraand Galata, by its port, 
the Golden Horn, an inlet, long and narrow, which ex- 
tends four miles into the country and is capable of float- 
ing 1,200 ships. As the Golden Horn was closed by the 
chain, Mohammed built a plank road behind the suburbs 
Med. His.— 12 



178 

of the cit}' and connecting the Bosporus with the upper 
part of the Golden Horn. " The distance was about ten 
miles ; the ground was uneven and overspread with 
thickets. A level way was covered with a broad plat- 
form of strong and solid planks, which they greased to 
render slippery. Eighty light galleys and brigantines 
of fifty or thirty oars were drawn upon the shore of the 
Bosporus, arranged on rollers and transported over the 
plank road by the power of men and pulleys. The sails 
were unfurled to the wind and the labor was cheered by 
song and acclamation. In the course of a single night 
this Turkish fleet painfully climbed the hill, steered 
over the plain, and was launched into the shallow 
waters of the harbor far above the molestation of the 
deeper vessels of the Greeks. 

"After a siege of forty days the fate of Constantinople 
could no longer be averted. At daybreak, on the 29tli of 
May, the Turks assaulted the city by sea and by land." 
The Christians offered a desperate resistance, and at first 
the progress of the besiegers was doubtful. " The Greeks 
still maintained and improved their advantage, and the 
voice of the Emperor was heard encouraging his soldiers 
to achieve, by a last effort, the deliverance of their coun- 
try. At that fatal moment, the Janizaries arose, fresh, 
vigorous, and invincible. The Sultan himself, on horse- 
back, with an iron mace in his hand, was the spectator 
and judge of their valor. He was surrounded by ten 
thousand of his domestic troops, whom he reserved for 
the decisive occasion ; and the tide of battle was directed 
and impelled by his voice and eye. His numerous 
ministers of justice were posted behind the line, to urge. 



179 

to restrain, and to punish ; and, if danger was in front, 
shame and inevitable death were in the rear of the fugi- 
tives. The cries of fear and of pain were drowned in 
the martial music of drums, trumpets, and atabals. 
From the lines, the galleys, and the bridge constructed 
across the Golden Horn, the Ottoman artiller}- thundered 
on all sides ; and the camp and city, the Greeks and 
Turks, were involved in a cloud of smoke, which could 
only be dispelled by the final deliverance or destruction 
of the city." — Goodrich. 

"At eight o'clock in the morning half of Constanti- 
nople was taken. Justiniani was mortally wounded ; 
Constantine was dead. By this sacrifice he had ennobled 
the last hours of the Roman Empire. The other quar- 
ters, having their own separate fortifications capitu- 
lated." — Duruy. 

At noon Mohammed rode in triumph into his new 
capital and went straight to the cathedral of St. Sophia; 
there before the high altar, where, the preceding night, 
Constantine had received the Holy Sacrament, he pros- 
trated himself in the Moslem act of worship. 

" Sanguinary as Mohammed was, the manner in which 
he treated the vanquished did him honor. He convert- 
ed St. Sophia into a Mohammedan mosque, but left the 
Greeks in possession of several churches. He restrained 
the fury of his soldiery, gave the Emperor a magnificent 
funeral, and afterwards made Constantinople a flourish- 
ing city." — Compiled from Goodrich, Duruy and Britan- 
7iica. (Further conquests of the Turks, see histories 
and Britannica under subject: "Turkey;" Origin of the 



180 

emblem of "Crescent," see "Zigzag Journeys in the 
Orient.") 

Results of Conquest of Constantinople. — The capture of 
Constantinople by the Venetians in the thirteenth cen- 
tury and by the Turks in the fifteenth century brought 
loss to the East but gain to the West. The intercourse 
between the Greek and the Italians brought about a de- 
velopment of art in the cities of Venice, Pisa, and Flor- 
ence, and many Greek artists became established in 
Italy. In like manner, the fall of the city before the 
Turks scattered Greek learning among the Latin and 
Teutonic races ; when Greek libraries were burned and 
the Greek language proscribed, Greek MSS. of the Bible 
sedulously copied by the monks of Constantinople from 
the fifth to the fifteenth century, conveyed the text into 
Western Europe ; the overthrow of the capital of Greek 
literature, synchronous with the invention of printing, 
in a great measure caused a revival of learning. — Adapted 
from Britannica. (Effect upon Commerce, see U. 
S. History. Read "Prince of India," by Lew Wallace. ) 

V. SPAIN IN THE MIDDLE AGES Concluded. 

Christians and Moors. — We have learned that in the 
eiglit century Spain was overrun by the Moors from 
Northern Africa, who drove the Christian Visigoths into 
the northwestern corner of the peninsula. Here the 
most resolute of the Christian chiefs found refuge in the 
Asturian valleys, and not only maintained their freedom, 
but gradually pushed back the invaders, regaining the 
land of their fathers. After seven hundred vears of al- 



181 

most constant warfare, four Christian kingdoms — Portu- 
gal, Aragon, Castile, and Navarre — were firmly established 
in the peninsula, while the Moorish power had sunk to 
the single province of Granada. 

Washington Irving thus graphically describes life in 
Spain at this period of the fifteenth century: 

*' War was the normal state of Granada and its inhab- 
itants ; the common people were subject at any moment 
to be summoned to the field, and all the upper class was 
a brilliant chivalry. The Christian princes, so success- 
ful in regaining the rest of the peninsula, found their 
triumphs checked at the mountain boundaries of this 
kingdom. Every peak had its atalaya or watch-tower, 
ready to make its fire by night or to send up its column 
of smoke by day, a signal of invasion, at which the 
whole country was on the alert. To penetrate the defiles 
of this perilous country, to surprise a frontier fortress, 
or to make a foray into the vega and a hasty ravage 
within sight of the very capital, were among the most 
favorite and daring exploits of the Castilian chivalry. 
But they never pretended to liold the region thus rav- 
aged ; it was sack, burn, plunder, and away ! and these 
desolating inroads were retaliated in kind by the Moor- 
ish cavaliers, whose greatest delight was a predatory in- 
cursion into the Christian territories beyond the moun- 
tains." 

The Cid Campeador. — During the long struggle be- 
tween the Spanish Christians and Mohammedan Moors, 
there arose many heroes whose wonderful exploits in- 
spired the recital of many fanciful legends. In those 
days, when two armies met, it was not unusual for one 



182 

of the bravest knights to ride out of the ranks and chal- 
lenge a knight on the opposite side to single combat, 
while the two armies looked on. The one who thus 
sought to be the champion of his people was called a 
challenger — in Spanish, campeador. Though there must 
have been many of these valiant knights, the Spanish 
poets of the Middle Ages have attributed all marvelous 
deeds of virtue and honor that occurred during that 
period to the one model hero of Spain called "The Cid" 
(that is. Chief). 

Rodrigo Diaz De Bivar, the Cid Campeador, or Lord 
Champion, was born at Burgos about the year 1025. 

When a mere boy he became famous as a campeador 
by killing a count to avenge an injury done to his father. 
Ximena, the daughter of the count, first entreated the 
king for the Cid's death, then won by the splendor of 
his valor, she herself asked for his hand in marriage. 
Having aroused the jealousy of the king he was banished 
and no one was allowed to shelter him under penalty of 
losing his house and eyes. The Cid finding every door 
closed against him offered his sword to the Moorish 
prince of Saragossa, who quickly accepted it, and de- 
spatched him to raid the Christian state of Aragon. He 
and his band of followers rode through Aragon like the 
wind, slaying every man they met, burning houses and 
trees, tearing up vines, and stealing what they could 
carry off. 

"After a time he left the employ of the prince of Sara- 
gossa, and took service with a Christian count to serve 
against the Moors. According to the story, he was the 
most terrible foe they had met." In 1094 he took pos- 



183 

session of Valencia after a siege of nine months. He 
proclaimed himself king, and, it is said, ruled four years 
with vigor and justice. At length a great Moorish army 
marched against Valencia and defeated the Cid's army 
under his favorite lieutenant. The Cid is said to have 
died of grief at this defeat. According to his last request 
his body was placed in full armor upon his famous horse. 
Babieca, and borne in a procession to the church at the 
monastery of San Pedro, near his native town. Five 
hundred knights rode as a body-guard, and behind the 
body followed his wife. Dona Ximena, and her attend- 
anis.— Adapted from Bonner and Britannica. '' The pro- 
cession moved slowly and silently and the Moors, not 
quite understanding it, made way for it to pass' It 
halted at the church at San Pedro, and there, under a 
canopy which bore the Cid's 3oat-of-arms, the body was 
set upright in an ivory chair, still sword in hand.'' Ten 
years later, says the legend, the corpse was reverently 
taken out of the ivory chair and buried before the altar, 
by the side of the faithful Ximena. 

"A whole library of romance and poetry has been 
written about the Cid. One of the most beautiful stories 
of his life was written by the English poet, Southey, 
and called the 'Chronicle of the Cid.' "—Bonner. The 
following poem was written by Felicia Hemans : 

THE CID'S DEATH-BED. 

It was an hour of grief and fear 

Within Valencia's walla, 
When the blue spring heaven lay still and clear 

Above her marble halls. 



184 

There were pale cheeks anil troubled eyes, 

And steps of hurrying feet, 
Where the Zambra's notes were wont to rise 

Along the sunny street. 

It was an hour of fear and grief 

•On bright Valencia's shore, 
For Death was busy with her chief, 

The noble Campeador. 

The Moor king's barks were on the deep, 

With sounds and signs of war ; 
But the Cid was passing to his sleep 

In the silent Alcazar. 

No moan was heard through the towers of state, 

No weeper's aspect seen ; 
But by the couch Ximena sate 

With pale though steadfast mien. 

Stillness was round the leader's bed, 

Warriors stood mournful nigh, 
And banners o'er his glorious head 

Were drooping heavily. 

And feeble grew the conquering hand, 

And cold the valiant breast ; 
He had fought the battles of the land, 

And his hour was come to rest. 

What said the ruler of the field? 

His voice is faint and low, 
The breeze that creeps o'er his lance and shield 

Hath louder accents now. 

" Raise ye no cry, and let no moan 
Be made when I dej>art ; 
The Moor must hear no dirge's tone; 
Be ye of mighty heart ! 

" Let the cymbal clash and the trumpet strain; 
From your walls ring far and shrill, 
And fear ye not, for the saints of Spain 
Shall grant you victory still. 



185 

"And gird my form with mail array, 
And set me on my steed ; 
So go ye forth on your funeral way, 
And God shall give you speed. 

" Go with the dead in the front of war, 
All armed with sword and helm, 
And march by the camp of King Bucar, 
For the good Castilian realm. 

"And let me slumber in the soil 
Which gave my fathers birth ; 
I have closed my day of battle-toil. 
And my course is done on earth." 

Now wave, ye glorious banners, wave! 

Through the lattice a wind sweeps by ; 
And the arms, o'er the death-bed of the brave. 

Send forth a hollow sigh. 

Now wave, ye banners of many a fight, 

As the fresh wind o'er you sweeps ; 
The wind and the banners fall hushed as night, 

The Campeador— he sleeps ! 

Sound the battle horn on the breeze of morn, 

And swell out the trumpet's blast 
Till the notes prevail o'er the voice of wail. 

For the noble Cid is dead ! 

(See poems of Spain in Longfellow's "Poems of 
Places" and Lockhart's "Ancient Spanish Ballads.") 

Fall of Grranada. — "In 1479 Ferdinand V. became 
King of Aragon ; his wife, Isabella, had previously in- 
herited the sovereignt}'- of Castile and Leon. Thus all 
the Christian principalities in Spain, except Navarre, 
were united under one scepter. 

" Ferdinand and Isabella administered justice, and re- 
stored peace to their dominions, which had long suffered 



186 

from civil commotions. Filled with a desire to propa- 
gate the Christian religion and suppress heresy, these 
sovereigns introduced the Inquisition, a court authorized 
by the pope to try all persons accused of differing from 
the established faith. This institution became the ter- 
ror of Jews and Mohammedans, and even of the Spanish 
nobles and clergy. On the slightest suspicion they were 
seized, 'tried' in secrecy, put to the torture to extort a 
confession of guilt and in many cases given to the 
flames, while the crown was enriched with their wealth. 

"One of the chief events of the reign of Ferdinand 
and Isabella was the conquest of Granada, the last strong- 
hold of the Mohammedans in Spain. For eight months 
the city, crowded with starving people and distracted by 
rival factions, held out against an army of seventy thou- 
sand. Its luxuriant plain, or vega, was the scene of fre- 
quent conflicts between the Christian knights and Moor- 
ish cavaliers ; the feats of valor there performed were 
long celebrated in the ballads of chivalry. (See chap- 
ter entitled "The Last Ravage Before Granada" in Irv- 
ing's "Granada.") 

"Isabella herself, richly attired in complete armor, 
rode through the camp encouraging her soldiers; while 
the Moorish ladies toiled upon the ramparts and cheered 
their defenders with their presence. But famine and 
insubordination at length compelled the Moslem king to 
capitulate. He surrendered his capital on condition that 
the inhabitants should remain undisturbed in their re- 
ligious faith and in the possession of their property." 
— Quackenbos. 

" The Moorish king, Boabdil, and his principal cava- 



187 

liers were to perform the act of homage and take an oath 
of fealty to the Castilian crown. To Boabdil was secured, 
his wealthy estates, both in and out of Granada, and the 
lordship of various towns, lands, and fertile valleys in 
the Alpuxarras, forming a petty sovereignty." — Irving. 

"Thus terminated in 1492 the Saracen Empire in 
Spain, after an existence of nearly eight centuries. 

"The Moors were for a time allowed freedom of wor- 
ship, but they were in the sixteenth century compelled 
to embrace Christianity or leave the country. Thousands 
departed from their native land, and those who remained 
lived in constant dread of the cruelties of the Inquisi- 
tion. By such intolerance Spain lost multitudes of her 
most useful and thrifty inhabitants." — Quackenbos. 

The Last Sigh of the Moor.— " Having rejoined his 
family, Boabdil set forward with a heavy heart for his 
allotted residence in the valley of the Purchena. At two 
leagues' distance, the cavalcade, winding into the skirts 
of the Alpuxaras, ascended an eminence commanding 
the last view of Granada. As they arrived at this spot, 
the Moors paused involuntarily to take a farewell gaze at 
their beloved city, which a few steps more would shut 
from their sight forever. Never had it appeared so lovely 
in their eyes. The sunshine, so bright in that trans- 
parent climate, lit up each tower and minaret, and rested 
gloriously upon the crowning battlements of the Alham- 
bra ; while the vega spread its enameled bosom of verd- 
ure below, glistening with the silver windings of the 
Xenil. The Moorish cavaliers gazed with a silent agony 
of tenderness and grief upon that delicious abode, the 
scene of their loves and pleasures. While they yet looked, 



188 

a light cloud of smoke burst forth from the citadel, and 
presently a peal of artillery, faintly heard, told that the 
city was taken possession of, and the throne of the 
Moslem kings was lost forever. The heart of Boabdil, 
softened by misfortunes, and overcharged with grief, 
could no longer contain itself. 'Allah Achbar ! God is 
great!" said he; but the words of resignation died upon 
his lips, and he burst into tears. 

"His mother, the intrepid Ayxa, was indignant at his 
weakness. ' You do well,' said she, ' to weep like a wo- 
man for what ^''ou failed to defend like a man.' * * * 

''The liill upon which they stood took the name of 
* Feg Allali Achbar ;' but the point of view, commanding 
the last prospect of Granada, is known among Spaniards 
by the name of ' El ultimo suspiro del Moros ', or 'The 
last sigh of the Moor.' " * * * 

How the Castiliaii Monarchs Took Possession of Gra- 
nada. — "It was on the 6th of January, 1492, that the 
sovereigns made their triumphal entry with grand mili- 
tary parade into the city of Granada." * * * 

"The royal procession advanced to the principal 
mosque, wliicli had been consecrated as a cathedral. Here 
the sovereigns offered up prayers and thanksgivings, 
and the choir of the royal chapel chanted a triumphal 
anthem, in which they were joined by all the courtiers 
and cavaliers." * * * 

" When the religious ceremonies were concluded, the 
court ascended to the stately palace of the Alhambra, 
and entered by the great Gate of Justice. The halls 
lately occupied by turbaned infidels now rustled with 
stately dames and Christian courtiers, who wandered 



189 

with eager curiosity over this far-famed palace, admir- 
ing its verdant courts and gushing fountains, its halls 
decorated with elegant arabesques and storied with in- 
scriptions, and the splendor of its gilded and brilliantly 
painted ceilings." * * * 

"The Spanish sovereigns fixed their throne in the 
presence-chamber of the palace, so long the seat of 
Moorish royalty. Hither the inhabitants of Granada 
repaired, to pay them homage and kiss their hands in 
token of vassalage ; and their example was followed by 
deputies from all the towns and fortresses of the Alpux- 
aras, which had not hitherto submitted. 

"Thus terminated the war of Granada, after ten 
years of incessant fighting ; equaling the far-famed siege 
of Troy in duration, and ending, like that, in the capture 
of the city. Thus ended also the dominion of the Moors 
in Spain, having endured seven hundred and seventy - 
eight years from the memorable defeat of Roderick, the 
last of the Goths, on the banks of the Guadalete." — 
Irving. 

TOWARD THE SEA. 

There was weeping in Granada on that eventful day ; 
One king in triumph entered in; one, vanquished, rode away. 
Down from the Alhamhra's minarets was every crescent flung 
And the cry of "Santiago!" through the jeweled palace rung. 

And singing, singing, singing. 

Were the nightingales of Spain, 

But the Moorish monarch, lonely, 

The cadences heard only. 
"They sadly sing," said he: 
"They sadly sing to me." 

And through the groves melodious 

He rode toward the sea. 



190 

There was joy in old Granada on that eventful day : 
One king in triumph entered in; one slowly rode away. 
Up the Alcala singing marched the gay cavaliers 
Gained was the Moslem Empire of twice three hundred years; 
And singing, singing, singing, 
AYere the nightingales of Spain, 
But the Moorish monarch lonely, 
The cadences heard only. 
"They sadly sing," said he, 
"They sadly sing to me, 
All the birds of Andalusia!" 
And he rode toward the sea. 

Through the groves of Alpuxaras, on that eventful day, 
The vanquished king rode slowly and tearfully, away. 
He paused upon the Xenil, and saw Granada fair 
Wreathed with the sunset's roses in palpitating air. 

And singing, singing, singing. 

Were the nightingales of Spain. 

But the Moorish monarch, lonely, 

The cadences heard only. 
"They sadly sing," said he, 
"They sadly sing to me; 

Oh, groves of Andalusia!" 

He rode toward the sea. 

The Vega heaped with flowers below the city lay, 

And faded in the sunset, as he slowly rode away, 

And he paused again a moment amid the cavaliers. 

And saw the golden palace shine through tlie mist of tears; 

And singing, singing, singing* 

Were the nightingales of Spain. 

But the Moorish monarch, lonely. 

The cadences heard only. 
"They sadly sing," said he, 
"They sadly sing to me; 

Farewell, O Andalusia!" 

And he rode toward the sea. 



191 



Past the gardens of Granada rode Isabella fair, 
As twilight's parting roses fell on the sea of air; 
She heard the lisping fountains, and not the Moslem's sighs 
She saw the sun-crowned mountains, and not the tear-wet eyes. 
"Sing on," she said, "forever, 

O nightingales of Spain ; 

Xenil nor Guadalquivir 

Will he ne'er see again. 

Ye sweetly sing," said she, 
"Ye sweetly sing tome." 

She rode toward the palace; 

He rode toward the sea. 

" I see above yon palace your pinnacles of gems 
The banners of the chalice, the dual diadems: 
It fills my heart with rapture, as from a smile divine, 
I feel the will to bless it, if all the world were mine. 
"Sing on," she said, "forever, 
O nightingale.s of Spain ; 
Xenil nor Guadalquivir 
Will he ne'er see again. 
Ye sweetly sing," said she, 
"Ye sweetly sing to me." 
She rode toward the capital ; 
He rode toward the sea. 

-Butterworth. 



' LIST OF WORKS 



WJiich, by kind permission of the publishers or authors {ichere copyright 
is in force), are quoted from or referred to in this icork. 

Ditruy's " Middle Ages," translated by E. & M. Whitney, edited by 

George D. Adams, and published by Henry Holt & Co. 
Myers' "General History," by Ginn & Co. 
Lydia Hoyt Farmer's " Boys' Book of Famous Rulers," by Thomas 

Crowell & Co. 
Bonner's "Child's History of Spain," Copyright, 1894, by Harper & 

Brothers. 
Bonner's "Child's History of France," Copyright, 1893, by Harper & 

Brothers. 
Goodrich'.s "History of England," l)y E. H. Butler & Co. 
Charlotte Yonge's " History of Germany," by D. Lothrop & Co. 
Charlotte Yonge's "History of France," by Estes & Lauriat. 
Lew Wallace's "Ben Hur" and "Prince of India," by Harper & 

Brothers. 
QiACKENBos' "School History of the World," bv D. Appleton & Co. 

1876. 
Dickens' "Child's History of England." 
Bitterworth's " Zigzag Journeys," by Estes & Lauriat. 
Irving's 'Granada" and "Alhanibra." 

Emerton's " Introduction to Study of Middle Ages," by Ginn & Co. 
Edgar's "Crusades and Crusaders," by Ward, Lock & Bowden. 
Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
Church's "Stories from English History," by the Macmilian Co. 
Peter Parley's "Cabinet Library." 1849. 
Ridpath's "History of the World," by Jones Brothers Publishing 

Company. 
" Encyclopedia Britannica." 

Barnes' "General History," by American Book Company. 
Jane Andrew's "Ten Boys." 
Scott's "Ivanhoe" and "Talisman." 

Miss Kirkland's " History of France" and "History of England." 
Mary Mapes Dodge's "Hans Brinker." 
Jane Porter's " Scottish Chiefs." 
Grace Aquilar's " Days of Bruce." 
Longfellow's " Poems of Europe." 
Lockhart's " Ancient Spanish Ballads." 
Bctterworth's Poem ""Towards the Sea." 
Felicia Hk.mans' "Homes of England," "The Cid's Deathbed" and 

"The Alhambra." 
BiLWER Lytton's "The Last Crusader." 
Other Poe.ms from Goldsmith, Thomson, N. P. Willis and Emanuel 

Geibel. 
References to Lowell's "Sir Launfal," Tennyson's "King Arthur," 

Bryant's " William Tell," Knowles' " AVilliam Tell," James Mont- 
gomery's " Arnold Winkelried." 



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